Constructivism-ELED 330
Constructivism is when students create meaning in their own way based off of their prior knowledge, past learning experiences, and existing knowledge. Additionally, students construct knowledge through their families, school experiences, and other social settings.
Final Paper!
Melissa Ottenbacher
Mr. Phillip Block
English 201
09 May 2008
Research Paper on Deaf-Blindness
Have you ever thought about what it would be like to lose your sense of hearing or even your vision? Perhaps you have lost hearing for a brief period of time or have to wear glasses or contact lenses to correct your vision. Well, for citizens who are deaf-blind there is nothing that can be done to bring back their auditory and visual senses; glasses or contact lenses, hearing aids, or other devices cannot not fix this condition. Now, imagine having a baby born without vision or hearing and having to teach him or her how to communicate, interact with others, and live a normal life. Throughout this paper, one will learn some background information regarding the history of deaf-blindness and the advances that have been made since the first person who was deaf-blind received an education. Also, one will learn how deaf-blind children are taught to communicate and to live up to their potential using different devices and strategies both inside and outside of the classroom. Next, this paper will discuss some of the struggles that children who are deaf-blind face developmentally, emotionally, behaviorally, and physically. Lastly, this paper will discuss the importance of play and recreation in the lives of deaf-blind children and the education of students who are deaf-blind in the general education classroom.
According to Barbara Miles with the National Information Clearinghouse on Children Who Are Deaf-Blind, “deaf-blindness is a condition in which the combination of hearing and visual losses in children cause ‘such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness’ or multiple disabilities” (1). There are multiple causes that can lead to the loss of hearing and vision. Some of the causes include syndromes, multiple congenital anomalies, prematurity, congenital prenatal dysfunction, and post-natal causes (Miles 1).
Throughout history, there have been programs to help educate the deaf-blind. Victorine Morriseau was the first person who was deaf-blind to receive a formal education in Paris, France (Collins 1). In the United States, Laura Bridgman was admitted to the Perkins School for the Blind in 1837 (1). In 1887, Anne Sullivan was sent to teach Helen Keller which “created a worldwide interest in the education of children who are deaf-blind” (1). Helen Keller and Anne Sullivan played a huge role in the education of children who are deaf-blind. Then, between 1962 and 1964, a “worldwide epidemic of rubella resulted in the birth of thousands of deaf-blind children” (1). This epidemic “highlighted the lack of facilities, manpower, and expertise to meet the needs of these children” (2). Consequently, many schools for the deaf-blind were started in all parts of the world, including the United States. For the next few years, Congress focused on passing laws to help set up programs directed to serve the needs of children and adults who are deaf-blind (2). In 1988, “The National Coalition on Deaf-Blindness was formed, to advocate for continuation of special services for deaf-blind children and adults nationally” (3). The Education of the Handicapped Act (known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act today) was reauthorized in 1990 to continue federal programs for children who are deaf-blind (3). It is apparent that the education of deaf-blind children and also the services available have changed remarkably throughout history.
The United States has a large number of people who are considered deaf-blind. Over 10,000 children are deaf-blind and range in age from birth to twenty-two (Miles 1). “It has been estimated that the adult deaf-blind population numbers 35-40,000” (2). The American Foundation for the Blind approximates that there are 93,000 visually impaired students and 10,800 of them are deaf-blind and are served in special education classrooms (2).
With so many children and adults who are deaf-blind, multiple communication devices must be available for deaf-blind people. Also, people who are deaf-blind need different safety devices to warn them of fires and even different devices to wake up in the morning or monitor their own children. Communication devices are always changing and becoming more technologically advanced for children and people who are deaf-blind.
Some devices that have been used by people who are deaf-blind include doorbell accessories and electroalarm clocks, alarm alert systems, nuvox sentinels, code-com sets with touch-tone telephones, univakts, vibravakts, special smoke detectors, sound horn type smoke detectors, vibrating alarms, autodigital vibrating alarm clocks, bed vibrators, portable auditory trainers, mono-fonator systems, travelear FM auditory training systems, personal FM system receivers, auditory training units, voice-lites, optacons, canon communicators, and mowat sensors (Carmen and Hurvitz 29-287). All of these devices help people who are deaf-blind every day.
While some of these devices are used to communicate, some are also used as alarms; in the case of an emergency, a deaf-blind person may use a fire alarm or a simple alarm to wake them up. For example, the doorbell accessory for an electroalarm clock “allows a hearing-impaired person to sense the doorbell is ringing through the vibration of the bed pillow. It also functions as a signaling and wake-up device” (29). Another device that acts as an alarm is called the alarm alert. The alarm alert “can be used as a wake-up alarm clock, baby alarm/alert, smoke or fire alert, telephone or doorbell signal alert, or general emergency alarm” (51). A nuvox sentinel is a device which “alerts an individual to the ringing of a telephone or doorbell, a crying baby, or other such sounds” (53). It “is activated by sound and can turn on a lamp or a chair or bed vibrator” (53). The next device helps a “deaf-blind person to receive and send telephone messages” (81). This device is called a code-com set with a touch-tone telephone and Braille typewriter. The sender communicates using a form of Morse code or another type of code that is known by the receiver. “The message comes through a vibrating pad at the front of the Code-Com and is interpreted through the fingertips” (81).
A univakt is another device which is “designed to alert a hearing-impaired parent to sounds and movements of an infant” (127). A univakt works by having a microphone placed close to where the infant sleeps. “When any audible disturbance, such as crying, is detected, a continuous signal is emitted. This signal can be connected to different optical and tactile awakening devices, such as a blowing fan, flashing lights, or a vibrating bed” (127). Another device used by deaf-blind people is called the vibravakt. This device vibrates “when activated by an acoustic signal such as an alarm clock ring, telephone ring, or fire alarm” (129). Also, there are special smoke detectors for deaf-blind people.
Specialized smoke detectors for people who are deaf-blind work through a wiring system which vibrates to warn of a fire. There is another type of smoke detector which is called the sound horn type. It contains a detector to detect a fire, but the transmitter “will sound and send a signal to the horn receiver in the neighbor’s home” (135). Therefore, a deaf-blind person would have to rely on a next door neighbor in the instance of a fire. A number of alarm type devices use some sort of vibrations to wake a deaf-blind person. Some of these devices include vibrating alarms, electroalarms, autodigital vibrating alarm clocks, and actual bed vibrators.
Furthermore, there is a device, called a mono-fonator system, which is used to help “stimulate, control, and structure a person’s speech” (211). This device also “provides the necessary cues for controlling pitch, loudness, duration, inflection, and rhythmical patterns, and for learning production and coarticulation of vowel and consonant sounds” (211). The voice-lite is another device which relies on tactile stimulation. There is “a sensitivity dial on the unit [that] can be set to respond to an individual’s volume control problem” (255). Basically, the voice-lite helps people who are deaf-blind control their voice and help with breath control. The optacon is a very expensive device which “is a reading system that gives deaf-blind persons immediate and independent access to the world of print” (283). This machine “converts the image of a printed letter or symbol into a tactile form that can be felt with one finger” (283). When the letters are converted, they are printed in a larger, vibrating form.
Next, there are Canon communicators which allow deaf-blind people to communicate or acquire information from people who can see. “Letters or symbols are selected on the unit’s keyboard, and the message is printed out on a paper-tape display” (285). The only downfall of this device is that the deaf-blind person using it must be fairly accurate at spelling and good at fine-motor skills to use the keyboard (285). Lastly, there is a device called a mowat sensor. “This unit is a handheld, electronic travel aid for deaf-blind persons” (287). This device is similar to using a long cane or a guide dog and is used to direct a deaf-blind person (287). With all of these technological devices to help them, children and people who are deaf-blind wake-up in the morning, communicate, and take safety measures more easily. Children and adults who are deaf-blind also communicate through different communication strategies.
Along with communication devices, there are also a number of basic communication strategies that are taught to deaf-blind children and adults.
Principal communication systems for persons who are deaf-blind are these: touch cues, gestures, object symbols, picture symbols, sign language, fingerspelling, signed English, Pidgin signed English, Braille writing and reading, Tadoma method of speech reading, American Sign Language, large print writing and reading, and lip-reading speech. (Miles 4-5)
Along with various communication strategies, there are also a number of different communication systems. These systems include receptive communication systems and expressive communication systems (Alberto and Wolff 2).
The most common types of receptive communication systems are speech, written communication, graphic and nontactile symbols, tactile symbols and object cues, gestures, movement cues, manual sign language, tactile sign language, Braille, and touch cues. (2)
A couple of the most important things to keep in mind when communicating with deaf-blind people is the type of communication system being used and how partner friendly the means of communication is when interacting (2). According to Alberto and Wolff, “the most commonly used expressive communication systems are the same as receptive communication systems except for idiosyncratic systems” (2). Idiosyncratic systems are specific ways of communicating between partners that is understood by the people using them. “Idiosyncratic systems vary in their level of familiarity, may be difficult to interpret, and limit the student’s ability to express himself or herself” (2). Essentially, it is important to take into consideration the communication system being used when interacting with a student who is deaf-blind because it will make the interaction more meaningful.
Next, there are many different types of gestures that can be used by children who are deaf-blind. First, “gestures are actions that are produced with the intent to communicate. They may be expressed by the hands, head, or entire body” (Bruce et al. 637). Gestures can be categorized as “either primitive and conventional or as contact and distal” (638). “Primitive gestures usually include the physical manipulation of oneself and others, such as pushing or pulling another” whereas “conventional gestures are less idiosyncratic to a child’s experiences which makes them more interpretable” (638). Conventional gestures can be used in a variety of settings and situations which makes them easier to interpret. According to Bruce et al., “children and adults with disabilities who expressed themselves through conventional gestures communicated more often and produced more frequent communicative repairs” (638). On the other hand, “contact gestures involve physical contact with objects and people” (638). With these types of gestures, less communication occurs (638). A study done by McLean et al. in 1991, “found that three of the four distal gesturers they studied had higher rates of expressive communication and initiated communication more often” (Bruce et al. 638). “Distal gesturers are able to gesture about objects, people, and events that are at a distance from their bodies” (638). However, “children who are deaf-blind often struggle to make the transition from primitive to conventional gestures and have been described as having a limited repertoire of conventional gestures” (640). Overall, gestures are a huge part of communication for children and people who are deaf-blind.
Additionally, in a study recorded in the Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, seven children who were deaf-blind and between the ages of four and eight were observed in order to monitor the types of gestures they used (641). “All of the participants communicated between Levels III and VIII of the Communication Matrix” (641). The levels of the Communication Matrix are:
Level III: intentional communication (presymbolic and nonconventional), Level IV: conventional communication (intentional and presymbolic), Level V: concrete tangible symbols (an optional level experienced by only some children), Level VI: single abstract symbols and Level VII: combinations of two to three abstract symbols. (Bruce et al. 642)
Overall, the study found that the participants used forty-four different gestures (643). Also, “the participants expressed primitive or contact gestures more frequently than conventional or distal gestures” (643). Moreover, the frequency of gestures varied among students who were deaf-blind. One student gestured 326 times in a six hour period while another student only gestured 38 times in a six hour period (646). In addition, the function of the actions varied, but “four children used gestures most often to express the function of requesting an action” (646). Other functions of the gestures included requesting an object, protesting, or commenting on an action (647). In summation, this study shows how much young children who are deaf-blind need to communicate through a variety of gestures and how often they depend on gestures to learn and meet their needs.
As mentioned before, there are other means of communication strategies besides gesturing which are effective for children who are deaf-blind to communicate. In order for communication to be purposeful it must meet certain criteria. “Alvares and Sternburn (1994) defined [guidelines for] functional communication as interactive, mediating subsequent events, used effectively in everyday settings with adults and children, achieving material and social outcomes, and progressing to higher levels of efficient and effective communication” (Engleman et al. 2). Some forms of nonlinguistic communication that children who are deaf-blind use are intentional behaviors, objects, signals, and natural gestures. Furthermore, these different nonlinguistic modes are often combined with other forms of communication (7). McLetchie and Riggio think “it is important to distinguish between intentional and nonintentional behaviors” (7). This is an important aspect to keep in mind when other people are working with deaf-blind students because “it is possible to assist children to demonstrate intentionality by teaching them to use deliberate actions when indicating choices” (7). Touch cues along with prompts help children with deaf-blindness communicate information to others (7). “For example, a certain type of touch may indicate that it is time to stand up, or sit down. Teachers can begin by introducing three or four touch cues and then add more as these cues are mastered” (7). Touch cues are important in the early years of education for children who are deaf-blind.
Children who are deaf-blind also use object cues. “Object cues provide children who are deaf-blind with reminders of the activity that needs to be completed. Initially, real objects are used as cues” (7). However, over time, the real objects may be diminished to a raised-tactile pictures or natural cues such as “the car door opening, meaning ‘time to get out’” (7). Along with intentional behaviors and touch/object cues, there are also different calendars and communication shelves that help children who are deaf-blind communicate. “Calendars can help bring order into the world of children who are deaf-blind” (7). These calendars or shelves “include objects, drawings, pictures, words, or some combination of these symbols that represent items that are meaningful to the individual” (7). There are multiple advantages to using communication shelves for children.
First, the child who is deaf-blind gains knowledge of the order of activities in the day. Even though these activities can change, the overall consistency and structure provide a sense of security. In addition, the child learns that activities have a beginning and an end. This knowledge is important in building concepts of sequence and time, as well as linking types of activities to each other. The communication shelf also uses the components of everyday routines to establish a correspondence between words and their meanings through naturalistic activities. (Engleman et al. 7)
Next, there are signals which children who are deaf-blind use to communicate. Everyday signals used by children who are deaf-blind include reaching for an object, pushing away an object that is not wanted, or pulling a person toward a specific destination (8). These are all forms of nonlinguistic communication in which deaf-blind children interact to meet their needs.
In addition to the nonlinguistic forms of communication, there are also ways that children who are deaf-blind communicate linguistically. However, “some do not develop either the receptive or expressive capacity for speech” (8). It is important to keep in mind that “children who are deaf-blind develop slowly because of their sensory deficits and limited experiences and interactions with others in the environment” (8). One form of linguistic communication is American Sign Language (ASL). Another type of sign language that is used is tactile sign language. “In this type of tactile signing, the communicator’s hands are placed under the receiver’s. The communicator then uses manual signs, touching the receiver’s hands and moving them when necessary” (9). Yet another means of linguistic communication is the Tadoma system. “In the Tadoma system, the hand of the ‘listener’ is placed over the face and neck of the speaker to monitor actions of the face associated with speech, and the listener’s fingers sometimes touch the speaker’s mouth” (9). Overall, there are multiple means of linguistic and nonlinguistic communication that help children who are deaf-blind interact with society. In addition, there are even different communication systems. There are also lots of special devices for children who are deaf-blind and families to help them out on a day to day basis. Communication is especially important for children who are deaf-blind to develop positive relationships with other people.
After reading about some of the different devices and strategies that children use to communicate on a daily basis, now one may begin to understand some of the play and recreational habits of children who are deaf-blind. A study done by Lauren J. Lieberman and Janet M. MacVicar “analyzed the current and recreational practices and the barriers faced by 54 youths who are deaf-blind” (755). Children who are deaf-blind have “fewer opportunities for play and recreation than do youths who are hearing and sighted. These lesser opportunities have direct consequences for their levels of physical activity and overall health” (755). The National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion found that “in the population of people who are hearing and sighted, regular physical activity benefits both physical and psychological health and reduces the risk of heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, and stress-related illnesses” (755). However, children who are deaf-blind do not always have the opportunity to be a part of physical education programs due to their disability (756). Many physical education teachers were not including children who are deaf-blind due to “inadequate professional preparation in teacher certification programs in physical education” (756). Therefore, children who are deaf-blind could be at risk for obesity, diabetes, and other health-related problems.
Play and recreational activities are also important activities in a child’s life. “Play is an important arena in which to develop locomotor and social interaction” (756). Furthermore, “recreational activities fulfill a variety of needs for people who are deaf-blind. First, recreation is an excellent way to facilitate communication among these individuals” (756). Also, “recreation is an essential part of an individual’s transition from school to vocational life, since positive recreational experiences can fill the time when an individual is not working or engaged in activities of daily living” (757). Lastly, “recreation can contribute to the development of a fuller presence and participation in the community, foster friendships, and other opportunities to build relationships, and strengthen employability” (757). Furthermore, recreational activities involve children who are deaf-blind in physical fitness activities that can improve their health (757). Therefore, recreational activities play a huge part in a child’s life. This is why it is so important to include children who are deaf-blind in recreational activities more often.
In the aforementioned study, Lieberman and MacVicar used a questionnaire asking the child who was deaf-blind and his or her family multiple questions regarding their play and recreational habits both inside and outside of their home. What the study revealed was that many parents were not happy with their child’s current level of physical activity, and some parents were not even sure if their child took part in a physical education program at school (762). The study also found that children who are deaf-blind were not given many opportunities in the community to participate in recreational type activities despite the incredible amount of free time many of them have each week (763). “This study found that the most common activities that the deaf-blind youths participated in were swimming, swinging or rocking, walking, using climbing equipment, [and] biking” (763). However, this study also found there are a number of “barriers” that stop children who are deaf-blind from participating in play and recreational activities. “The most common barriers were the disability itself and the lack of knowledge, appropriate programming, staff, communication, time, money, accessibility, and transportation” (764). Overall, children who are deaf-blind do not always have access to appropriate recreational activities due to various reasons which can be dangerous to their overall health.
Along with the struggle of being deaf-blind, these children also have many other struggles developmentally, emotionally, behaviorally, and physically. “Deaf-blindness is often accompanied by additional disabilities” (Miles 2). One cause of deaf-blindness, called maternal rubella, can have effects on the heart and brain (2). Also, “some genetic syndromes or brain injuries that cause deaf-blindness may also cause cognitive disabilities and/or physical disabilities” (2). Along with these struggles, “behavioral and emotional difficulties often accompany deaf-blindness and are the natural outcomes of the child’s or adult’s inability to understand and communicate” (3). Perhaps the greatest struggle that children who are deaf-blind face is trying to learn means of communication (3). In addition to these struggles, children who are deaf-blind also have to deal with “the challenge of learning to move about in the world as freely and independently as possible” which “depends in large […] upon the education they have received since childhood, and particularly upon the communication with others that they have been able to develop” (3). In summation, education is a huge factor in a deaf-blind child’s future. So, not only do deaf-blind children face struggles, but the family, educators, and caregivers of the child who is deaf-blind also have to meet the unique challenges that the deaf-blind individual presents (3). “The most important challenge for parents, caregivers, and teachers is to communicate meaningfully with the child who is deaf-blind” (3). All in all, children who are deaf-blind do not have easy lives; however, with a great education and family support, deaf-blind children’s lives can be fairly normal.
With education being so important in a deaf-blind child’s life, one has to look at where these children are being educated. As mentioned at the beginning of the paper, there are roughly 10,800 deaf-blind children who are educated through the special education program (American Foundation for the Blind 2). However, in the Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, there was an article published on ways to “facilitate social supports for students who were deaf-blind in general education classes” (Goetz and O’Farrell 1). Furthermore, “a growing body of literature indicates that students who are deaf-blind are being educated in general education classrooms (1). There are a number of positive outcomes for including students who are deaf-blind in the general education classroom (1). Some of these positive outcomes include “differences in outcome measures of social competence [and] the quality of objectives of Individualized Education Programs” (1). However, “the [deaf-blind] students’ unique educational needs for communication, mobility, and sensory functioning, and the heterogeneity of their cognitive and functional capacities make it challenging to design and deliver effective educational services to them” (1). Through one study done in California, the researchers came up with a “social support package” which was designed to create a rich social context that promoted ongoing interactions among students, teachers, and staff” (4). This social support package addressed three different social support strategies including:
the ongoing provision of information about the individual strengths and needs and about deaf-blindness through a variety of classroom activities and formats, the provision of interactive, multimedia communication systems that are appropriate for the student’s needs and in classroom contexts, [and] the continuous facilitation of social interactions between and among classmates through a range of planned and spontaneous activities and strategies. (2)
What the researchers found was that these different strategies addressed some major issues regarding the education of students who are deaf-blind. The study showed that there are a minimal number of students who are deaf-blind who are attending local school districts; although many educators are providing services for these students, several people may not have sufficient knowledge about deaf-blindness to work with deaf-blind students in a beneficial manner (4). The study also found a greater need for “highly individualized communication systems that rely on a variety of media that is a characteristic of persons who are deaf-blind” (6). Lastly, the study showed that many students who are deaf-blind are often isolated. This stresses the importance of having these students involved in the general education classroom setting. Studies such as this point out the fact that there is so much more that could be done to help these students. For example, this study showed the significance of involving students who are deaf-blind in the general education classroom and other studies have shown the increased need for recreational programs. This just goes to show that there is still a lot to be learned about students who are deaf-blind. While it appears that there are lots of communication techniques and devices for children who are deaf-blind, there is still more that can be done so that these students can live up to their full potential. Educators may have come a long way in meeting the needs of these students, but there is still a long way to go to meet the student’s unique educational needs.
In addition to improving education for children who are deaf-blind, there is also plenty that can be done to improve communication with deaf-blind children. One way to help deaf-blind students is by “conduct[ing] multiple assessments over time and contexts” (Engleman et al. 4). Also, when conducting these assessments, the educators should take into account the environment “because children who are deaf-blind may have difficulty generalizing skills from one situation to another [and] because some environments may require more adaptations than others” (4). By using multiple assessments, educators are able to see the child’s needs and how they are constantly changing along with how to best meet those needs across different environments (4). It is essential that educators use the information they gain from the assessments to help children who are deaf-blind receive a more individualized education that fits his or her educational needs.
Another way to improve communication is by using a team approach involving the family, community members, and educators. By using a team approach in communicating with children who are deaf-blind, the deaf-blind students will feel more included in the school and community environment (4). Along with using the team approach in communication, using inclusive programming is also important. Basically, inclusive programming involves the student more in school activities and in the community, both of which allow for more social interactions (4). Yet another way to improve communication is by developing receptive communication and the residual senses:
[Some] practical strategies for increasing receptive communication and using the residual senses include maintaining interaction at eye level or with special accommodations to visual conditions, using touch cues to initiate or terminate interactions, teaching other communication partners to communicate with the child who is deaf-blind using modes that the child will understand, adapting communication to the child’s needed pace, establishing a respectful and trusting relationship with the child, and interpreting some of the things going on in the environment. (5)
By using these strategies, deaf-blind students may learn to communicate better, and communication may come more naturally. Also, it can help with social interactions in school and among family members. Providing a need or motivation for communication is also important for children who are deaf-blind. Teachers can help motivate children who are deaf-blind by involving the students in many different communication activities and using experiences that are common to the child (5). One of the main keys in communicating with children who are deaf-blind is having consistent communication cues while still using multiple cues. “This multiple systems approach can also help the children generalize their skills to various environments and use progressively more abstract levels of thought in the communication process” (5). By using many different cues, deaf-blind students can interact in many different ways depending on the person they are communicating with.
The next way to improve communication in children who are deaf-blind is by increasing the child’s engagement. “Schwartz and McBride (1995) defined engagement as the total amount of time children spend actively involved in activities that are educationally appropriate” (6). Some ways to increase engagement for deaf-blind students is through setting goals that are age-appropriate for their level of functioning and by allowing more play (6). Also, “the classroom environment is an important factor for heightening levels of engagement” (6). Having students’ desks arranged so the students face one another, appropriate lighting, and an easily accessible classroom can all help increase the child’s engagement, thus increasing communication opportunities (6). Overall, the classroom environment plays a role in the amount of communication that occurs with children who are deaf-blind.
In general, there are multiple ways that educators can help improve communication by simply moving the desks into an order which provides opportunity for social interaction, using different cues, and various other ways. Education is such an important part of deaf-blind children’s lives that educators need to be aware of the advancing studies and technology that are available to help teach these unique students. When children who are deaf-blind are given opportunities for interaction it helps them develop their communication skills and allows for more positive peer communication within the classroom.
Overall, there are many ways that children who are deaf-blind communicate. Also, children who are deaf-blind have many struggles and difficulties because of their disability. However, deaf-blind children are not the only ones who have problems to face; the parents have to deal with a lot, along with educators and other people in the deaf-blind child’s life. While technological advances are being made to help this group of people, there are still more advances to be made. Education is an important part of deaf-blind children’s lives. Educators need to be aware of the latest technological advances, communication techniques, and recent studies to help teach children who are deaf-blind. In summation, this paper touched on the history of deaf-blindness, communication and other devices, communication strategies, some of the struggles that children who are deaf-blind face, and ways that communication can be improved for children who are deaf-blind.
*Just as a side-note, I used the phrasing “children who are deaf-blind” because in special education we put the person first rather than their label. I tried to stay consistent with this throughout but all of my research varied in how they worded it-just wanted to let you know because I know it sounds weird in some cases.
Works Cited
Alberto, P.A., and Wolff K. Heller. “Interactions of Communication Partners and Students Who are Deaf-Blind: A Model.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 89.5 (1995): 391. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=4&hid=117& sid=1655235d-07e0-4812-b350ef72da36c1f4%4 0sessionmgr106>.
Bruce, Susan M., et al. “Gestures Expressed by Children Who Are Congenitally Deaf-Blind: Topography, Rate, and Function.” The Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 101.10 (2007): 637-52. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008.
Carmen, Richard, and Joel Hurvitz. Special Devices for Hard of Hearing, Deaf, and Deaf-Blind Persons. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1981.
Collins, M.T. “History of Deaf-Blind Education.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 89.3 (1995): 210-13. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008..
Engleman, Melissa D., et al. “Deaf-Blindness and Communication: Practical Knowledge and Strategies.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 92.11 (1998): 783-99. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008.
Goetz, Lori, and Nora O’Farrell. “Connections: Facilitating Social Supports for Students with Deaf-Blindness in General-Education Classrooms.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 93.11 (1999): 704-16. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < h ttp://web.ebscohost.com/ehos t/detail?v id=24&hid=105&sid=1655235d-07e0481 2-b350ef72da36c1f4%40sessionmgr 106>.
Lieberman, Lauren J., and Janet M. MacVicar. “Play and Recreational Habits of Youths Who Are Deaf-Blind.” Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness 97.12 (2003): 755-68. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=3 &hid=117 &sid=165523 5d-07e0-4812-b350-ef72da36c1f4%40sessionmgr106>.
Miles, Barbara. “Overview on Deaf-Blindness.” The National Information Clearinghouse on Children Who Are Deaf-Blind (2005). MedlinePlus. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008. < http://www.dbli nk.org/lib/overview.htm>.
“Statistical Snapshots.” American Foundation for the Blind (2008) MedLine Plus. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < http://www.afb.org/section.asp ?SectionID=15#num>.
Mr. Phillip Block
English 201
09 May 2008
Research Paper on Deaf-Blindness
Have you ever thought about what it would be like to lose your sense of hearing or even your vision? Perhaps you have lost hearing for a brief period of time or have to wear glasses or contact lenses to correct your vision. Well, for citizens who are deaf-blind there is nothing that can be done to bring back their auditory and visual senses; glasses or contact lenses, hearing aids, or other devices cannot not fix this condition. Now, imagine having a baby born without vision or hearing and having to teach him or her how to communicate, interact with others, and live a normal life. Throughout this paper, one will learn some background information regarding the history of deaf-blindness and the advances that have been made since the first person who was deaf-blind received an education. Also, one will learn how deaf-blind children are taught to communicate and to live up to their potential using different devices and strategies both inside and outside of the classroom. Next, this paper will discuss some of the struggles that children who are deaf-blind face developmentally, emotionally, behaviorally, and physically. Lastly, this paper will discuss the importance of play and recreation in the lives of deaf-blind children and the education of students who are deaf-blind in the general education classroom.
According to Barbara Miles with the National Information Clearinghouse on Children Who Are Deaf-Blind, “deaf-blindness is a condition in which the combination of hearing and visual losses in children cause ‘such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness’ or multiple disabilities” (1). There are multiple causes that can lead to the loss of hearing and vision. Some of the causes include syndromes, multiple congenital anomalies, prematurity, congenital prenatal dysfunction, and post-natal causes (Miles 1).
Throughout history, there have been programs to help educate the deaf-blind. Victorine Morriseau was the first person who was deaf-blind to receive a formal education in Paris, France (Collins 1). In the United States, Laura Bridgman was admitted to the Perkins School for the Blind in 1837 (1). In 1887, Anne Sullivan was sent to teach Helen Keller which “created a worldwide interest in the education of children who are deaf-blind” (1). Helen Keller and Anne Sullivan played a huge role in the education of children who are deaf-blind. Then, between 1962 and 1964, a “worldwide epidemic of rubella resulted in the birth of thousands of deaf-blind children” (1). This epidemic “highlighted the lack of facilities, manpower, and expertise to meet the needs of these children” (2). Consequently, many schools for the deaf-blind were started in all parts of the world, including the United States. For the next few years, Congress focused on passing laws to help set up programs directed to serve the needs of children and adults who are deaf-blind (2). In 1988, “The National Coalition on Deaf-Blindness was formed, to advocate for continuation of special services for deaf-blind children and adults nationally” (3). The Education of the Handicapped Act (known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act today) was reauthorized in 1990 to continue federal programs for children who are deaf-blind (3). It is apparent that the education of deaf-blind children and also the services available have changed remarkably throughout history.
The United States has a large number of people who are considered deaf-blind. Over 10,000 children are deaf-blind and range in age from birth to twenty-two (Miles 1). “It has been estimated that the adult deaf-blind population numbers 35-40,000” (2). The American Foundation for the Blind approximates that there are 93,000 visually impaired students and 10,800 of them are deaf-blind and are served in special education classrooms (2).
With so many children and adults who are deaf-blind, multiple communication devices must be available for deaf-blind people. Also, people who are deaf-blind need different safety devices to warn them of fires and even different devices to wake up in the morning or monitor their own children. Communication devices are always changing and becoming more technologically advanced for children and people who are deaf-blind.
Some devices that have been used by people who are deaf-blind include doorbell accessories and electroalarm clocks, alarm alert systems, nuvox sentinels, code-com sets with touch-tone telephones, univakts, vibravakts, special smoke detectors, sound horn type smoke detectors, vibrating alarms, autodigital vibrating alarm clocks, bed vibrators, portable auditory trainers, mono-fonator systems, travelear FM auditory training systems, personal FM system receivers, auditory training units, voice-lites, optacons, canon communicators, and mowat sensors (Carmen and Hurvitz 29-287). All of these devices help people who are deaf-blind every day.
While some of these devices are used to communicate, some are also used as alarms; in the case of an emergency, a deaf-blind person may use a fire alarm or a simple alarm to wake them up. For example, the doorbell accessory for an electroalarm clock “allows a hearing-impaired person to sense the doorbell is ringing through the vibration of the bed pillow. It also functions as a signaling and wake-up device” (29). Another device that acts as an alarm is called the alarm alert. The alarm alert “can be used as a wake-up alarm clock, baby alarm/alert, smoke or fire alert, telephone or doorbell signal alert, or general emergency alarm” (51). A nuvox sentinel is a device which “alerts an individual to the ringing of a telephone or doorbell, a crying baby, or other such sounds” (53). It “is activated by sound and can turn on a lamp or a chair or bed vibrator” (53). The next device helps a “deaf-blind person to receive and send telephone messages” (81). This device is called a code-com set with a touch-tone telephone and Braille typewriter. The sender communicates using a form of Morse code or another type of code that is known by the receiver. “The message comes through a vibrating pad at the front of the Code-Com and is interpreted through the fingertips” (81).
A univakt is another device which is “designed to alert a hearing-impaired parent to sounds and movements of an infant” (127). A univakt works by having a microphone placed close to where the infant sleeps. “When any audible disturbance, such as crying, is detected, a continuous signal is emitted. This signal can be connected to different optical and tactile awakening devices, such as a blowing fan, flashing lights, or a vibrating bed” (127). Another device used by deaf-blind people is called the vibravakt. This device vibrates “when activated by an acoustic signal such as an alarm clock ring, telephone ring, or fire alarm” (129). Also, there are special smoke detectors for deaf-blind people.
Specialized smoke detectors for people who are deaf-blind work through a wiring system which vibrates to warn of a fire. There is another type of smoke detector which is called the sound horn type. It contains a detector to detect a fire, but the transmitter “will sound and send a signal to the horn receiver in the neighbor’s home” (135). Therefore, a deaf-blind person would have to rely on a next door neighbor in the instance of a fire. A number of alarm type devices use some sort of vibrations to wake a deaf-blind person. Some of these devices include vibrating alarms, electroalarms, autodigital vibrating alarm clocks, and actual bed vibrators.
Furthermore, there is a device, called a mono-fonator system, which is used to help “stimulate, control, and structure a person’s speech” (211). This device also “provides the necessary cues for controlling pitch, loudness, duration, inflection, and rhythmical patterns, and for learning production and coarticulation of vowel and consonant sounds” (211). The voice-lite is another device which relies on tactile stimulation. There is “a sensitivity dial on the unit [that] can be set to respond to an individual’s volume control problem” (255). Basically, the voice-lite helps people who are deaf-blind control their voice and help with breath control. The optacon is a very expensive device which “is a reading system that gives deaf-blind persons immediate and independent access to the world of print” (283). This machine “converts the image of a printed letter or symbol into a tactile form that can be felt with one finger” (283). When the letters are converted, they are printed in a larger, vibrating form.
Next, there are Canon communicators which allow deaf-blind people to communicate or acquire information from people who can see. “Letters or symbols are selected on the unit’s keyboard, and the message is printed out on a paper-tape display” (285). The only downfall of this device is that the deaf-blind person using it must be fairly accurate at spelling and good at fine-motor skills to use the keyboard (285). Lastly, there is a device called a mowat sensor. “This unit is a handheld, electronic travel aid for deaf-blind persons” (287). This device is similar to using a long cane or a guide dog and is used to direct a deaf-blind person (287). With all of these technological devices to help them, children and people who are deaf-blind wake-up in the morning, communicate, and take safety measures more easily. Children and adults who are deaf-blind also communicate through different communication strategies.
Along with communication devices, there are also a number of basic communication strategies that are taught to deaf-blind children and adults.
Principal communication systems for persons who are deaf-blind are these: touch cues, gestures, object symbols, picture symbols, sign language, fingerspelling, signed English, Pidgin signed English, Braille writing and reading, Tadoma method of speech reading, American Sign Language, large print writing and reading, and lip-reading speech. (Miles 4-5)
Along with various communication strategies, there are also a number of different communication systems. These systems include receptive communication systems and expressive communication systems (Alberto and Wolff 2).
The most common types of receptive communication systems are speech, written communication, graphic and nontactile symbols, tactile symbols and object cues, gestures, movement cues, manual sign language, tactile sign language, Braille, and touch cues. (2)
A couple of the most important things to keep in mind when communicating with deaf-blind people is the type of communication system being used and how partner friendly the means of communication is when interacting (2). According to Alberto and Wolff, “the most commonly used expressive communication systems are the same as receptive communication systems except for idiosyncratic systems” (2). Idiosyncratic systems are specific ways of communicating between partners that is understood by the people using them. “Idiosyncratic systems vary in their level of familiarity, may be difficult to interpret, and limit the student’s ability to express himself or herself” (2). Essentially, it is important to take into consideration the communication system being used when interacting with a student who is deaf-blind because it will make the interaction more meaningful.
Next, there are many different types of gestures that can be used by children who are deaf-blind. First, “gestures are actions that are produced with the intent to communicate. They may be expressed by the hands, head, or entire body” (Bruce et al. 637). Gestures can be categorized as “either primitive and conventional or as contact and distal” (638). “Primitive gestures usually include the physical manipulation of oneself and others, such as pushing or pulling another” whereas “conventional gestures are less idiosyncratic to a child’s experiences which makes them more interpretable” (638). Conventional gestures can be used in a variety of settings and situations which makes them easier to interpret. According to Bruce et al., “children and adults with disabilities who expressed themselves through conventional gestures communicated more often and produced more frequent communicative repairs” (638). On the other hand, “contact gestures involve physical contact with objects and people” (638). With these types of gestures, less communication occurs (638). A study done by McLean et al. in 1991, “found that three of the four distal gesturers they studied had higher rates of expressive communication and initiated communication more often” (Bruce et al. 638). “Distal gesturers are able to gesture about objects, people, and events that are at a distance from their bodies” (638). However, “children who are deaf-blind often struggle to make the transition from primitive to conventional gestures and have been described as having a limited repertoire of conventional gestures” (640). Overall, gestures are a huge part of communication for children and people who are deaf-blind.
Additionally, in a study recorded in the Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, seven children who were deaf-blind and between the ages of four and eight were observed in order to monitor the types of gestures they used (641). “All of the participants communicated between Levels III and VIII of the Communication Matrix” (641). The levels of the Communication Matrix are:
Level III: intentional communication (presymbolic and nonconventional), Level IV: conventional communication (intentional and presymbolic), Level V: concrete tangible symbols (an optional level experienced by only some children), Level VI: single abstract symbols and Level VII: combinations of two to three abstract symbols. (Bruce et al. 642)
Overall, the study found that the participants used forty-four different gestures (643). Also, “the participants expressed primitive or contact gestures more frequently than conventional or distal gestures” (643). Moreover, the frequency of gestures varied among students who were deaf-blind. One student gestured 326 times in a six hour period while another student only gestured 38 times in a six hour period (646). In addition, the function of the actions varied, but “four children used gestures most often to express the function of requesting an action” (646). Other functions of the gestures included requesting an object, protesting, or commenting on an action (647). In summation, this study shows how much young children who are deaf-blind need to communicate through a variety of gestures and how often they depend on gestures to learn and meet their needs.
As mentioned before, there are other means of communication strategies besides gesturing which are effective for children who are deaf-blind to communicate. In order for communication to be purposeful it must meet certain criteria. “Alvares and Sternburn (1994) defined [guidelines for] functional communication as interactive, mediating subsequent events, used effectively in everyday settings with adults and children, achieving material and social outcomes, and progressing to higher levels of efficient and effective communication” (Engleman et al. 2). Some forms of nonlinguistic communication that children who are deaf-blind use are intentional behaviors, objects, signals, and natural gestures. Furthermore, these different nonlinguistic modes are often combined with other forms of communication (7). McLetchie and Riggio think “it is important to distinguish between intentional and nonintentional behaviors” (7). This is an important aspect to keep in mind when other people are working with deaf-blind students because “it is possible to assist children to demonstrate intentionality by teaching them to use deliberate actions when indicating choices” (7). Touch cues along with prompts help children with deaf-blindness communicate information to others (7). “For example, a certain type of touch may indicate that it is time to stand up, or sit down. Teachers can begin by introducing three or four touch cues and then add more as these cues are mastered” (7). Touch cues are important in the early years of education for children who are deaf-blind.
Children who are deaf-blind also use object cues. “Object cues provide children who are deaf-blind with reminders of the activity that needs to be completed. Initially, real objects are used as cues” (7). However, over time, the real objects may be diminished to a raised-tactile pictures or natural cues such as “the car door opening, meaning ‘time to get out’” (7). Along with intentional behaviors and touch/object cues, there are also different calendars and communication shelves that help children who are deaf-blind communicate. “Calendars can help bring order into the world of children who are deaf-blind” (7). These calendars or shelves “include objects, drawings, pictures, words, or some combination of these symbols that represent items that are meaningful to the individual” (7). There are multiple advantages to using communication shelves for children.
First, the child who is deaf-blind gains knowledge of the order of activities in the day. Even though these activities can change, the overall consistency and structure provide a sense of security. In addition, the child learns that activities have a beginning and an end. This knowledge is important in building concepts of sequence and time, as well as linking types of activities to each other. The communication shelf also uses the components of everyday routines to establish a correspondence between words and their meanings through naturalistic activities. (Engleman et al. 7)
Next, there are signals which children who are deaf-blind use to communicate. Everyday signals used by children who are deaf-blind include reaching for an object, pushing away an object that is not wanted, or pulling a person toward a specific destination (8). These are all forms of nonlinguistic communication in which deaf-blind children interact to meet their needs.
In addition to the nonlinguistic forms of communication, there are also ways that children who are deaf-blind communicate linguistically. However, “some do not develop either the receptive or expressive capacity for speech” (8). It is important to keep in mind that “children who are deaf-blind develop slowly because of their sensory deficits and limited experiences and interactions with others in the environment” (8). One form of linguistic communication is American Sign Language (ASL). Another type of sign language that is used is tactile sign language. “In this type of tactile signing, the communicator’s hands are placed under the receiver’s. The communicator then uses manual signs, touching the receiver’s hands and moving them when necessary” (9). Yet another means of linguistic communication is the Tadoma system. “In the Tadoma system, the hand of the ‘listener’ is placed over the face and neck of the speaker to monitor actions of the face associated with speech, and the listener’s fingers sometimes touch the speaker’s mouth” (9). Overall, there are multiple means of linguistic and nonlinguistic communication that help children who are deaf-blind interact with society. In addition, there are even different communication systems. There are also lots of special devices for children who are deaf-blind and families to help them out on a day to day basis. Communication is especially important for children who are deaf-blind to develop positive relationships with other people.
After reading about some of the different devices and strategies that children use to communicate on a daily basis, now one may begin to understand some of the play and recreational habits of children who are deaf-blind. A study done by Lauren J. Lieberman and Janet M. MacVicar “analyzed the current and recreational practices and the barriers faced by 54 youths who are deaf-blind” (755). Children who are deaf-blind have “fewer opportunities for play and recreation than do youths who are hearing and sighted. These lesser opportunities have direct consequences for their levels of physical activity and overall health” (755). The National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion found that “in the population of people who are hearing and sighted, regular physical activity benefits both physical and psychological health and reduces the risk of heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, and stress-related illnesses” (755). However, children who are deaf-blind do not always have the opportunity to be a part of physical education programs due to their disability (756). Many physical education teachers were not including children who are deaf-blind due to “inadequate professional preparation in teacher certification programs in physical education” (756). Therefore, children who are deaf-blind could be at risk for obesity, diabetes, and other health-related problems.
Play and recreational activities are also important activities in a child’s life. “Play is an important arena in which to develop locomotor and social interaction” (756). Furthermore, “recreational activities fulfill a variety of needs for people who are deaf-blind. First, recreation is an excellent way to facilitate communication among these individuals” (756). Also, “recreation is an essential part of an individual’s transition from school to vocational life, since positive recreational experiences can fill the time when an individual is not working or engaged in activities of daily living” (757). Lastly, “recreation can contribute to the development of a fuller presence and participation in the community, foster friendships, and other opportunities to build relationships, and strengthen employability” (757). Furthermore, recreational activities involve children who are deaf-blind in physical fitness activities that can improve their health (757). Therefore, recreational activities play a huge part in a child’s life. This is why it is so important to include children who are deaf-blind in recreational activities more often.
In the aforementioned study, Lieberman and MacVicar used a questionnaire asking the child who was deaf-blind and his or her family multiple questions regarding their play and recreational habits both inside and outside of their home. What the study revealed was that many parents were not happy with their child’s current level of physical activity, and some parents were not even sure if their child took part in a physical education program at school (762). The study also found that children who are deaf-blind were not given many opportunities in the community to participate in recreational type activities despite the incredible amount of free time many of them have each week (763). “This study found that the most common activities that the deaf-blind youths participated in were swimming, swinging or rocking, walking, using climbing equipment, [and] biking” (763). However, this study also found there are a number of “barriers” that stop children who are deaf-blind from participating in play and recreational activities. “The most common barriers were the disability itself and the lack of knowledge, appropriate programming, staff, communication, time, money, accessibility, and transportation” (764). Overall, children who are deaf-blind do not always have access to appropriate recreational activities due to various reasons which can be dangerous to their overall health.
Along with the struggle of being deaf-blind, these children also have many other struggles developmentally, emotionally, behaviorally, and physically. “Deaf-blindness is often accompanied by additional disabilities” (Miles 2). One cause of deaf-blindness, called maternal rubella, can have effects on the heart and brain (2). Also, “some genetic syndromes or brain injuries that cause deaf-blindness may also cause cognitive disabilities and/or physical disabilities” (2). Along with these struggles, “behavioral and emotional difficulties often accompany deaf-blindness and are the natural outcomes of the child’s or adult’s inability to understand and communicate” (3). Perhaps the greatest struggle that children who are deaf-blind face is trying to learn means of communication (3). In addition to these struggles, children who are deaf-blind also have to deal with “the challenge of learning to move about in the world as freely and independently as possible” which “depends in large […] upon the education they have received since childhood, and particularly upon the communication with others that they have been able to develop” (3). In summation, education is a huge factor in a deaf-blind child’s future. So, not only do deaf-blind children face struggles, but the family, educators, and caregivers of the child who is deaf-blind also have to meet the unique challenges that the deaf-blind individual presents (3). “The most important challenge for parents, caregivers, and teachers is to communicate meaningfully with the child who is deaf-blind” (3). All in all, children who are deaf-blind do not have easy lives; however, with a great education and family support, deaf-blind children’s lives can be fairly normal.
With education being so important in a deaf-blind child’s life, one has to look at where these children are being educated. As mentioned at the beginning of the paper, there are roughly 10,800 deaf-blind children who are educated through the special education program (American Foundation for the Blind 2). However, in the Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, there was an article published on ways to “facilitate social supports for students who were deaf-blind in general education classes” (Goetz and O’Farrell 1). Furthermore, “a growing body of literature indicates that students who are deaf-blind are being educated in general education classrooms (1). There are a number of positive outcomes for including students who are deaf-blind in the general education classroom (1). Some of these positive outcomes include “differences in outcome measures of social competence [and] the quality of objectives of Individualized Education Programs” (1). However, “the [deaf-blind] students’ unique educational needs for communication, mobility, and sensory functioning, and the heterogeneity of their cognitive and functional capacities make it challenging to design and deliver effective educational services to them” (1). Through one study done in California, the researchers came up with a “social support package” which was designed to create a rich social context that promoted ongoing interactions among students, teachers, and staff” (4). This social support package addressed three different social support strategies including:
the ongoing provision of information about the individual strengths and needs and about deaf-blindness through a variety of classroom activities and formats, the provision of interactive, multimedia communication systems that are appropriate for the student’s needs and in classroom contexts, [and] the continuous facilitation of social interactions between and among classmates through a range of planned and spontaneous activities and strategies. (2)
What the researchers found was that these different strategies addressed some major issues regarding the education of students who are deaf-blind. The study showed that there are a minimal number of students who are deaf-blind who are attending local school districts; although many educators are providing services for these students, several people may not have sufficient knowledge about deaf-blindness to work with deaf-blind students in a beneficial manner (4). The study also found a greater need for “highly individualized communication systems that rely on a variety of media that is a characteristic of persons who are deaf-blind” (6). Lastly, the study showed that many students who are deaf-blind are often isolated. This stresses the importance of having these students involved in the general education classroom setting. Studies such as this point out the fact that there is so much more that could be done to help these students. For example, this study showed the significance of involving students who are deaf-blind in the general education classroom and other studies have shown the increased need for recreational programs. This just goes to show that there is still a lot to be learned about students who are deaf-blind. While it appears that there are lots of communication techniques and devices for children who are deaf-blind, there is still more that can be done so that these students can live up to their full potential. Educators may have come a long way in meeting the needs of these students, but there is still a long way to go to meet the student’s unique educational needs.
In addition to improving education for children who are deaf-blind, there is also plenty that can be done to improve communication with deaf-blind children. One way to help deaf-blind students is by “conduct[ing] multiple assessments over time and contexts” (Engleman et al. 4). Also, when conducting these assessments, the educators should take into account the environment “because children who are deaf-blind may have difficulty generalizing skills from one situation to another [and] because some environments may require more adaptations than others” (4). By using multiple assessments, educators are able to see the child’s needs and how they are constantly changing along with how to best meet those needs across different environments (4). It is essential that educators use the information they gain from the assessments to help children who are deaf-blind receive a more individualized education that fits his or her educational needs.
Another way to improve communication is by using a team approach involving the family, community members, and educators. By using a team approach in communicating with children who are deaf-blind, the deaf-blind students will feel more included in the school and community environment (4). Along with using the team approach in communication, using inclusive programming is also important. Basically, inclusive programming involves the student more in school activities and in the community, both of which allow for more social interactions (4). Yet another way to improve communication is by developing receptive communication and the residual senses:
[Some] practical strategies for increasing receptive communication and using the residual senses include maintaining interaction at eye level or with special accommodations to visual conditions, using touch cues to initiate or terminate interactions, teaching other communication partners to communicate with the child who is deaf-blind using modes that the child will understand, adapting communication to the child’s needed pace, establishing a respectful and trusting relationship with the child, and interpreting some of the things going on in the environment. (5)
By using these strategies, deaf-blind students may learn to communicate better, and communication may come more naturally. Also, it can help with social interactions in school and among family members. Providing a need or motivation for communication is also important for children who are deaf-blind. Teachers can help motivate children who are deaf-blind by involving the students in many different communication activities and using experiences that are common to the child (5). One of the main keys in communicating with children who are deaf-blind is having consistent communication cues while still using multiple cues. “This multiple systems approach can also help the children generalize their skills to various environments and use progressively more abstract levels of thought in the communication process” (5). By using many different cues, deaf-blind students can interact in many different ways depending on the person they are communicating with.
The next way to improve communication in children who are deaf-blind is by increasing the child’s engagement. “Schwartz and McBride (1995) defined engagement as the total amount of time children spend actively involved in activities that are educationally appropriate” (6). Some ways to increase engagement for deaf-blind students is through setting goals that are age-appropriate for their level of functioning and by allowing more play (6). Also, “the classroom environment is an important factor for heightening levels of engagement” (6). Having students’ desks arranged so the students face one another, appropriate lighting, and an easily accessible classroom can all help increase the child’s engagement, thus increasing communication opportunities (6). Overall, the classroom environment plays a role in the amount of communication that occurs with children who are deaf-blind.
In general, there are multiple ways that educators can help improve communication by simply moving the desks into an order which provides opportunity for social interaction, using different cues, and various other ways. Education is such an important part of deaf-blind children’s lives that educators need to be aware of the advancing studies and technology that are available to help teach these unique students. When children who are deaf-blind are given opportunities for interaction it helps them develop their communication skills and allows for more positive peer communication within the classroom.
Overall, there are many ways that children who are deaf-blind communicate. Also, children who are deaf-blind have many struggles and difficulties because of their disability. However, deaf-blind children are not the only ones who have problems to face; the parents have to deal with a lot, along with educators and other people in the deaf-blind child’s life. While technological advances are being made to help this group of people, there are still more advances to be made. Education is an important part of deaf-blind children’s lives. Educators need to be aware of the latest technological advances, communication techniques, and recent studies to help teach children who are deaf-blind. In summation, this paper touched on the history of deaf-blindness, communication and other devices, communication strategies, some of the struggles that children who are deaf-blind face, and ways that communication can be improved for children who are deaf-blind.
*Just as a side-note, I used the phrasing “children who are deaf-blind” because in special education we put the person first rather than their label. I tried to stay consistent with this throughout but all of my research varied in how they worded it-just wanted to let you know because I know it sounds weird in some cases.
Works Cited
Alberto, P.A., and Wolff K. Heller. “Interactions of Communication Partners and Students Who are Deaf-Blind: A Model.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 89.5 (1995): 391. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=4&hid=117& sid=1655235d-07e0-4812-b350ef72da36c1f4%4 0sessionmgr106>.
Bruce, Susan M., et al. “Gestures Expressed by Children Who Are Congenitally Deaf-Blind: Topography, Rate, and Function.” The Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 101.10 (2007): 637-52. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008
Carmen, Richard, and Joel Hurvitz. Special Devices for Hard of Hearing, Deaf, and Deaf-Blind Persons. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1981.
Collins, M.T. “History of Deaf-Blind Education.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 89.3 (1995): 210-13. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008.
Engleman, Melissa D., et al. “Deaf-Blindness and Communication: Practical Knowledge and Strategies.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 92.11 (1998): 783-99. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008
Goetz, Lori, and Nora O’Farrell. “Connections: Facilitating Social Supports for Students with Deaf-Blindness in General-Education Classrooms.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 93.11 (1999): 704-16. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < h ttp://web.ebscohost.com/ehos t/detail?v id=24&hid=105&sid=1655235d-07e0481 2-b350ef72da36c1f4%40sessionmgr 106>.
Lieberman, Lauren J., and Janet M. MacVicar. “Play and Recreational Habits of Youths Who Are Deaf-Blind.” Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness 97.12 (2003): 755-68. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=3 &hid=117 &sid=165523 5d-07e0-4812-b350-ef72da36c1f4%40sessionmgr106>.
Miles, Barbara. “Overview on Deaf-Blindness.” The National Information Clearinghouse on Children Who Are Deaf-Blind (2005). MedlinePlus. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008. < http://www.dbli nk.org/lib/overview.htm>.
“Statistical Snapshots.” American Foundation for the Blind (2008) MedLine Plus. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < http://www.afb.org/section.asp ?SectionID=15#num>.
IDEA extra credit summary
IDEA Summary
The project I viewed at IDEA fest was a history project done by a senior pre-medical student. The title of the project was “The Calomel Catalyst: Medical Professionalization during the Civil War.” The project grabbed my attention with the use of disgusting and mortifying pictures of injured patients displayed on his poster. The poster talked about changes to medicine during the civil war such as improving hospitals and medicines that doctors gave out to patients. The poster also showed that the Civil War was connected to improvements that later happened in medicine. The war was important because many doctors were involved in it, and they were able to learn a lot because there were so many patients. The doctors were also given information from the Army on how to best treat diseases and other medical conditions during the war. Hospitals were made cleaner and were organized better, which was needed because they had been really unclean places before the war. The poster had a graph that actually showed the percent of doctors who fought for the North and for the South out of the total number of doctors in America. The conclusion of the project said that medicine was professionalized partly because of the Civil War. This happened as doctors who had benefited from learning things in the war later made improvements to medicine. They ended up making medical schools much better and also creating licensing laws to only certain doctors to practice.
Overall, I was really impressed by this project. The poster was very catchy and the presenter did a great job of explaining his project to me and was very polite. As a result of attending IDEA fest, I learned a lot about how the Civil War made such a large impact on medical advances that are even used today and helped improve hospital conditions.
The project I viewed at IDEA fest was a history project done by a senior pre-medical student. The title of the project was “The Calomel Catalyst: Medical Professionalization during the Civil War.” The project grabbed my attention with the use of disgusting and mortifying pictures of injured patients displayed on his poster. The poster talked about changes to medicine during the civil war such as improving hospitals and medicines that doctors gave out to patients. The poster also showed that the Civil War was connected to improvements that later happened in medicine. The war was important because many doctors were involved in it, and they were able to learn a lot because there were so many patients. The doctors were also given information from the Army on how to best treat diseases and other medical conditions during the war. Hospitals were made cleaner and were organized better, which was needed because they had been really unclean places before the war. The poster had a graph that actually showed the percent of doctors who fought for the North and for the South out of the total number of doctors in America. The conclusion of the project said that medicine was professionalized partly because of the Civil War. This happened as doctors who had benefited from learning things in the war later made improvements to medicine. They ended up making medical schools much better and also creating licensing laws to only certain doctors to practice.
Overall, I was really impressed by this project. The poster was very catchy and the presenter did a great job of explaining his project to me and was very polite. As a result of attending IDEA fest, I learned a lot about how the Civil War made such a large impact on medical advances that are even used today and helped improve hospital conditions.
Final paper
Melissa Ottenbacher
Mr. Phillip Block
English 201
11 April 2008
Paper on Deaf-Blindness
There are roughly 10 million blind and visually impaired people in the United States alone. One such person was Helen Keller, a successful deaf-blind college graduate despite her set back. In this paper, one will learn how deaf-blind children are taught to communicate to live up to their potential using different devices and strategies both inside and outside of the classroom. Also, this paper will discuss some of the services provided to deaf-blind children and some struggles they face developmentally, emotionally, behaviorally and physically.
According to Barbara Miles with the National Information Clearinghouse on Children Who Are Deaf-Blind, “deaf-blindness is a condition in which the combination of hearing and visual losses in children cause ‘such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness’ or multiple disabilities” (1). There are multiple causes for going deaf-blind and some of the causes include: syndromes, multiple congenital anomalies, prematurity, congenital prenatal dysfunction, and post-natal causes (Miles 1).
Throughout history, there have been programs to help educate the deaf-blind. Victorine Morriseaus was the first deaf-blind person to receive a formal education in Paris, France (Collins 1). Laura Bridgman was admitted to the Perkins School for the Blind here in the United States in 1837 (1). In 1887, Anne Sullivan was sent to teach Helen Keller which “created a worldwide interest in the education of deaf-blind children” (1). Helen Keller and Anne Sullivan played a huge role in the education of deaf-blind children and people. Between 1962 and 1964, a “worldwide epidemic of rubella resulted in the birth of thousands of deaf-blind children” (1). This epidemic “highlighted the lack of facilities, manpower, and expertise to meet the needs of these children” (2). Consequently, many deaf-blind schools were started in all parts of the world, including the United States. For the next few years, Congress focused on passing laws to help set up programs directed to serve and meet the needs of deaf-blind children and adults (2) In 1988, “the National Coalition on Deaf-Blindness was formed, to advocate for continuation of special services for deaf-blind children and adults nationally” (3). The Education of Handicapped Act (now known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) was reauthorized in 1990 to continue federal programs for deaf-blind children (3). It is apparent that the education of deaf-blind children and services available has changed remarkably throughout history.
There is a large number of deaf-blind people in the United States. Over 10,000 children are deaf-blind and range in age from birth to twenty-two (Miles 1). “It has been estimated that the adult deaf-blind population numbers 35-40,000 (2).
With so many deaf-blind children and adults, there needs to be multiple communication devices available for the deaf-blind. These communication devices are always changing and becoming more technologically advanced. Some devices that have been used by deaf-blind people include doorbell accessories and electroalarm clocks, alarm alert systems, nuvox sentinels, code-com sets with a touch-tone telephone, univakts, vibravakts, special smoke detectors, sound horn type smoke detectors, vibrating alarms, electroalarm clocks, autodigital vibrating alarm clocks, bed vibrators, portable auditory trainers, mono-fonator systems, travelear FM auditory training systems, personal FM system receivers, auditory training units, voice-lites, optacons, canon communicators, and mowat sensors. All of these devices help deaf-blind people each day. While some of these devices are used to communicate, some are also used for emergencies to warn a deaf-blind person of a fire or simply to wake them up in the morning. For example, the doorbell accessory for an electro alarm clock “allows a hearing-impaired person to sense the doorbell is ringing through the vibration of the bed pillow. It also functions as a signaling and wake-up device” (Carmen and Hurvitz 29). Another device that acts as an alarm is called the alarm alert. The alarm alert “can be used as a wake-up alarm clock, baby alarm/alert, smoke or fire alert, telephone or doorbell signal alert, or general emergency alarm” (51). A nuvox sentinel is a device which “alerts an individual to the ringing of a telephone or doorbell, a crying baby, or other such sounds” (53). A nuvox sentinel “is activated by sound and can turn on a lamp or a chair or bed vibrator” (53). The next device helps a “deaf-blind person to receive and send telephone messages” (81). This device is called a code-com set with a touch-tone telephone and Braille typewriter. The sender communicates using a form of Morse code or another type of code that is known by the receiver. “The message comes through a vibrating pad at the front of the Code-Com and is interpreted through the fingertips” (81). A univakt is a device “designed to alert a hearing-impaired parent to sounds and movements of an infant” (127). A univakt works by having a microphone placed close to where the infant sleeps. “When any audible disturbance, such as crying, is detected, a continuous signal is emitted. This signal can be connected to different optical and tactile awakening devices, such as a blowing fan, flashing lights, or a vibrating bed” (127). Another device used by deaf-blind people is called the vibravakt. These are priced around $60. This device vibrates “when activated by an acoustic signal such as an alarm clock ring, telephone ring, or fire alarm” (129). Also, there are special smoke detectors for deaf-blind people. These smoke detectors work through a wiring system which vibrates to warn of a fire. One of these smoke detectors can be as much as $95. There is another type of smoke detector which is called the sound horn type. There is a detector to detect a fire, but the transmitter “will sound and send a signal to the horn receiver in the neighbor’s home” (135). Therefore, a deaf-blind person would have to rely on a next door neighbor in the instance of a fire. There are a number of alarm type devices which use some sort of vibrations to wake a deaf-blind person. Some of these devices include: vibrating alarms, electroalarms, autodigital vibrating alarm clocks, and actual bed vibrators. One device, called a mono-fonator system, is used to help “stimulate, control, and structure a person’s speech” (211). This device also “provides the necessary cues for controlling pitch, loudness, duration, inflection, and rhythmical patters, and for learning production and coarticulation of vowel and consonant sounds” (211). These systems are quite expensive and cost around $1,000. The voice-lite is another device which relies on tactile stimulation. There is “a sensitivity dial on the unit [that] can be set to respond to an individual’s volume control problem” (255). Basically, the voice-lite helps deaf-blind people control their voice and help with breath control. The optacon is a very expensive device which “is a reading system that gives deaf-blind persons immediate and independent access to the world of print” (283). This machine “converts the image of a printed letter or symbol into a tactile form that can be felt with one finger” (283). The neat thing about this machine is the letters that are converted are printed in a larger, vibrating form. Next there are Canon communicators which allow deaf-blind people to communicate or acquire information from people who can see. “Letters or symbols are selected on the unit’s keyboard, and the message is printed out on a paper-tape display” (285). The only downfall of this device is that the deaf-blind person using it must be fairly accurate at spelling and good at fine-motor skills to use the keyboard (285). Lastly, there is a device called a mowat sensor. “This unit is a handheld, electronic travel aid for deaf-blind persons” (287). This device is similar to using a long cane or a guide dog to direct a deaf-blind person (287). With all of these technological devices to help deaf-blind children and people wake-up in the morning, communicate, or even for safety measures, deaf-blind children and adults also communicate through different communication strategies.
Along with communication devices, there are also a number of basic communication strategies that are taught to deaf-blind children and adults.
“Principal communication systems for persons who are deaf-blind are these: touch cues, gestures, object symbols, picture symbols, sign language, fingerspelling, signed English, Pidgin signed English, Braille writing and reading, Tadoma method of speech reading, American Sign Language, large print writing and reading, and lip-reading speech” (Miles 4-5).
Along with various communication strategies, there are also a number of different communication systems. These systems include receptive communication systems and expressive communication systems (Alberto and Wolff 2).
“The most common types of receptive communication systems are speech, written communication, graphic and nontactile symbols, tactile symbols and object cues, gestures, movement cues, manual sign language, tactile sign language, Braille, and touch cues” (2).
One of the most important things to keep in mind when communicating with deaf-blind people is the type of communication system and how partner friendly the means of communication is when interacting (2). According to Alberto and Wolff, “the most commonly used expressive communication systems are the same as receptive communication systems except for idiosyncratic systems” (2). Idiosyncratic systems are specific ways of communicating between partners that is understood by the people using them. “Idiosyncratic systems vary in their level of familiarity, may be difficult to interpret, and limit the student’s ability to express himself or herself” (2).
Let’s take a look at some of the different types of gestures and how often they are used by deaf-blind children. First, “gestures are actions that are produced with the intent to communicate. They may be expressed by the hands, head, or entire body” (Bruce et al. 637). Gestures can be categorized as “either primitive and conventional or as contact and distal” (638). “Primitive gestures usually include the physical manipulation of oneself and others, such as pushing or pulling another” whereas “conventional gestures are less idiosyncratic to a child’s experiences which makes them more interpretable” (638). Conventional gestures can be used a variety of settings and situations which make them easier to interpret. According to Bruce et al. “children and adults with disabilities who expressed themselves through conventional gestures communicated more often and produced more frequent communicative repairs” (638). On the other hand, “contact gestures involve physical contact with objects and people” (638). With these types of gestures, less communication occurs (638). A study done by McLean et al. in 1991, “found that three of the four distal gesturers they studied had higher rates of expressive communication and initiated communication more often” (Bruce et al. 638). “Distal gesturers are able to gesture about objects, people, and events that are at a distance from their bodies” (638). However, “children who are deaf-blind often struggle to make the transition from primitive to conventional gestures and been described as having a limited repertoire of conventional gestures” (640). In a study done in the Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, seven deaf-blind children between the ages of four and eight were observed to monitor the types of gestures they expressed (641). “All of the participants communicated between Levels III and VIII of the Communication Matrix” (641). The levels of the Communication Matrix are:
Level III: intentional communication (presymbolic and nonconventional), Level IV: conventional communication (intentional and presymbolic), Level V: concrete tangible symbols (an optional level experienced by only some children), Level VI: single abstract symbols and Level VII: combinations of two to three abstract symbols (Bruce et al. 642).
Overall, the study found that the participants used forty-four different gestures (643). Also, “the participants expressed primitive or contact gestures more frequently than conventional or distal gestures” (643). Moreover, the students used a wide range of frequencies when it came to gesturing. One student gestured 326 times in a six hour period while another student only gestured 38 times in a six hour period (646). In addition, the function of the actions varied, but “four children used gestures most often to express the function of requesting an action” (646). Other functions of the gestures included requesting an object, protesting, or commenting on an action (647). In summation, this study shows how just how much young children need to communicate through gestures of all types and how much they depend on gestures to learn and meet their needs.
As mentioned before there are other means of communication strategies besides gesturing which are effective for deaf-blind children to communicate. In order for communication to be purposeful,
Alvares and Sternburn (1994) defined [guidelines for] functional communication as interactive, mediating subsequent events, used effectively in everyday settings with adults and children, achieving material and social outcomes, and progressing to higher levels of efficient and effective communication (Engleman et al. 2).
Mr. Phillip Block
English 201
11 April 2008
Paper on Deaf-Blindness
There are roughly 10 million blind and visually impaired people in the United States alone. One such person was Helen Keller, a successful deaf-blind college graduate despite her set back. In this paper, one will learn how deaf-blind children are taught to communicate to live up to their potential using different devices and strategies both inside and outside of the classroom. Also, this paper will discuss some of the services provided to deaf-blind children and some struggles they face developmentally, emotionally, behaviorally and physically.
According to Barbara Miles with the National Information Clearinghouse on Children Who Are Deaf-Blind, “deaf-blindness is a condition in which the combination of hearing and visual losses in children cause ‘such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness’ or multiple disabilities” (1). There are multiple causes for going deaf-blind and some of the causes include: syndromes, multiple congenital anomalies, prematurity, congenital prenatal dysfunction, and post-natal causes (Miles 1).
Throughout history, there have been programs to help educate the deaf-blind. Victorine Morriseaus was the first deaf-blind person to receive a formal education in Paris, France (Collins 1). Laura Bridgman was admitted to the Perkins School for the Blind here in the United States in 1837 (1). In 1887, Anne Sullivan was sent to teach Helen Keller which “created a worldwide interest in the education of deaf-blind children” (1). Helen Keller and Anne Sullivan played a huge role in the education of deaf-blind children and people. Between 1962 and 1964, a “worldwide epidemic of rubella resulted in the birth of thousands of deaf-blind children” (1). This epidemic “highlighted the lack of facilities, manpower, and expertise to meet the needs of these children” (2). Consequently, many deaf-blind schools were started in all parts of the world, including the United States. For the next few years, Congress focused on passing laws to help set up programs directed to serve and meet the needs of deaf-blind children and adults (2) In 1988, “the National Coalition on Deaf-Blindness was formed, to advocate for continuation of special services for deaf-blind children and adults nationally” (3). The Education of Handicapped Act (now known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) was reauthorized in 1990 to continue federal programs for deaf-blind children (3). It is apparent that the education of deaf-blind children and services available has changed remarkably throughout history.
There is a large number of deaf-blind people in the United States. Over 10,000 children are deaf-blind and range in age from birth to twenty-two (Miles 1). “It has been estimated that the adult deaf-blind population numbers 35-40,000 (2).
With so many deaf-blind children and adults, there needs to be multiple communication devices available for the deaf-blind. These communication devices are always changing and becoming more technologically advanced. Some devices that have been used by deaf-blind people include doorbell accessories and electroalarm clocks, alarm alert systems, nuvox sentinels, code-com sets with a touch-tone telephone, univakts, vibravakts, special smoke detectors, sound horn type smoke detectors, vibrating alarms, electroalarm clocks, autodigital vibrating alarm clocks, bed vibrators, portable auditory trainers, mono-fonator systems, travelear FM auditory training systems, personal FM system receivers, auditory training units, voice-lites, optacons, canon communicators, and mowat sensors. All of these devices help deaf-blind people each day. While some of these devices are used to communicate, some are also used for emergencies to warn a deaf-blind person of a fire or simply to wake them up in the morning. For example, the doorbell accessory for an electro alarm clock “allows a hearing-impaired person to sense the doorbell is ringing through the vibration of the bed pillow. It also functions as a signaling and wake-up device” (Carmen and Hurvitz 29). Another device that acts as an alarm is called the alarm alert. The alarm alert “can be used as a wake-up alarm clock, baby alarm/alert, smoke or fire alert, telephone or doorbell signal alert, or general emergency alarm” (51). A nuvox sentinel is a device which “alerts an individual to the ringing of a telephone or doorbell, a crying baby, or other such sounds” (53). A nuvox sentinel “is activated by sound and can turn on a lamp or a chair or bed vibrator” (53). The next device helps a “deaf-blind person to receive and send telephone messages” (81). This device is called a code-com set with a touch-tone telephone and Braille typewriter. The sender communicates using a form of Morse code or another type of code that is known by the receiver. “The message comes through a vibrating pad at the front of the Code-Com and is interpreted through the fingertips” (81). A univakt is a device “designed to alert a hearing-impaired parent to sounds and movements of an infant” (127). A univakt works by having a microphone placed close to where the infant sleeps. “When any audible disturbance, such as crying, is detected, a continuous signal is emitted. This signal can be connected to different optical and tactile awakening devices, such as a blowing fan, flashing lights, or a vibrating bed” (127). Another device used by deaf-blind people is called the vibravakt. These are priced around $60. This device vibrates “when activated by an acoustic signal such as an alarm clock ring, telephone ring, or fire alarm” (129). Also, there are special smoke detectors for deaf-blind people. These smoke detectors work through a wiring system which vibrates to warn of a fire. One of these smoke detectors can be as much as $95. There is another type of smoke detector which is called the sound horn type. There is a detector to detect a fire, but the transmitter “will sound and send a signal to the horn receiver in the neighbor’s home” (135). Therefore, a deaf-blind person would have to rely on a next door neighbor in the instance of a fire. There are a number of alarm type devices which use some sort of vibrations to wake a deaf-blind person. Some of these devices include: vibrating alarms, electroalarms, autodigital vibrating alarm clocks, and actual bed vibrators. One device, called a mono-fonator system, is used to help “stimulate, control, and structure a person’s speech” (211). This device also “provides the necessary cues for controlling pitch, loudness, duration, inflection, and rhythmical patters, and for learning production and coarticulation of vowel and consonant sounds” (211). These systems are quite expensive and cost around $1,000. The voice-lite is another device which relies on tactile stimulation. There is “a sensitivity dial on the unit [that] can be set to respond to an individual’s volume control problem” (255). Basically, the voice-lite helps deaf-blind people control their voice and help with breath control. The optacon is a very expensive device which “is a reading system that gives deaf-blind persons immediate and independent access to the world of print” (283). This machine “converts the image of a printed letter or symbol into a tactile form that can be felt with one finger” (283). The neat thing about this machine is the letters that are converted are printed in a larger, vibrating form. Next there are Canon communicators which allow deaf-blind people to communicate or acquire information from people who can see. “Letters or symbols are selected on the unit’s keyboard, and the message is printed out on a paper-tape display” (285). The only downfall of this device is that the deaf-blind person using it must be fairly accurate at spelling and good at fine-motor skills to use the keyboard (285). Lastly, there is a device called a mowat sensor. “This unit is a handheld, electronic travel aid for deaf-blind persons” (287). This device is similar to using a long cane or a guide dog to direct a deaf-blind person (287). With all of these technological devices to help deaf-blind children and people wake-up in the morning, communicate, or even for safety measures, deaf-blind children and adults also communicate through different communication strategies.
Along with communication devices, there are also a number of basic communication strategies that are taught to deaf-blind children and adults.
“Principal communication systems for persons who are deaf-blind are these: touch cues, gestures, object symbols, picture symbols, sign language, fingerspelling, signed English, Pidgin signed English, Braille writing and reading, Tadoma method of speech reading, American Sign Language, large print writing and reading, and lip-reading speech” (Miles 4-5).
Along with various communication strategies, there are also a number of different communication systems. These systems include receptive communication systems and expressive communication systems (Alberto and Wolff 2).
“The most common types of receptive communication systems are speech, written communication, graphic and nontactile symbols, tactile symbols and object cues, gestures, movement cues, manual sign language, tactile sign language, Braille, and touch cues” (2).
One of the most important things to keep in mind when communicating with deaf-blind people is the type of communication system and how partner friendly the means of communication is when interacting (2). According to Alberto and Wolff, “the most commonly used expressive communication systems are the same as receptive communication systems except for idiosyncratic systems” (2). Idiosyncratic systems are specific ways of communicating between partners that is understood by the people using them. “Idiosyncratic systems vary in their level of familiarity, may be difficult to interpret, and limit the student’s ability to express himself or herself” (2).
Let’s take a look at some of the different types of gestures and how often they are used by deaf-blind children. First, “gestures are actions that are produced with the intent to communicate. They may be expressed by the hands, head, or entire body” (Bruce et al. 637). Gestures can be categorized as “either primitive and conventional or as contact and distal” (638). “Primitive gestures usually include the physical manipulation of oneself and others, such as pushing or pulling another” whereas “conventional gestures are less idiosyncratic to a child’s experiences which makes them more interpretable” (638). Conventional gestures can be used a variety of settings and situations which make them easier to interpret. According to Bruce et al. “children and adults with disabilities who expressed themselves through conventional gestures communicated more often and produced more frequent communicative repairs” (638). On the other hand, “contact gestures involve physical contact with objects and people” (638). With these types of gestures, less communication occurs (638). A study done by McLean et al. in 1991, “found that three of the four distal gesturers they studied had higher rates of expressive communication and initiated communication more often” (Bruce et al. 638). “Distal gesturers are able to gesture about objects, people, and events that are at a distance from their bodies” (638). However, “children who are deaf-blind often struggle to make the transition from primitive to conventional gestures and been described as having a limited repertoire of conventional gestures” (640). In a study done in the Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, seven deaf-blind children between the ages of four and eight were observed to monitor the types of gestures they expressed (641). “All of the participants communicated between Levels III and VIII of the Communication Matrix” (641). The levels of the Communication Matrix are:
Level III: intentional communication (presymbolic and nonconventional), Level IV: conventional communication (intentional and presymbolic), Level V: concrete tangible symbols (an optional level experienced by only some children), Level VI: single abstract symbols and Level VII: combinations of two to three abstract symbols (Bruce et al. 642).
Overall, the study found that the participants used forty-four different gestures (643). Also, “the participants expressed primitive or contact gestures more frequently than conventional or distal gestures” (643). Moreover, the students used a wide range of frequencies when it came to gesturing. One student gestured 326 times in a six hour period while another student only gestured 38 times in a six hour period (646). In addition, the function of the actions varied, but “four children used gestures most often to express the function of requesting an action” (646). Other functions of the gestures included requesting an object, protesting, or commenting on an action (647). In summation, this study shows how just how much young children need to communicate through gestures of all types and how much they depend on gestures to learn and meet their needs.
As mentioned before there are other means of communication strategies besides gesturing which are effective for deaf-blind children to communicate. In order for communication to be purposeful,
Alvares and Sternburn (1994) defined [guidelines for] functional communication as interactive, mediating subsequent events, used effectively in everyday settings with adults and children, achieving material and social outcomes, and progressing to higher levels of efficient and effective communication (Engleman et al. 2).
annotated bib. with 15 sources
Annotated Bibliography
Research Question: There are a number of deaf-blind people in this world. One such person was Helen Keller, who graduated from college despite her setback. So how in the absence of visual and aural stimulation, are deaf-blind children taught to communicate to live a normal but yet fulfilling life? What are some strategies and devices used to teach a child how to communicate and how can these strategies and devices be improved? Where are students who are deaf-blind educated and what services are they provided with? What are some of the struggles both developmentally, emotionally, physically that affect deaf-blind children?
Alberto, P.A., and Wolff K. Heller. “Interactions of Communication Partners and Students Who are Deaf-Blind: A Model.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 89.5 (1995): 391. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < http://web.ebscohost.co m/ehost/detail?vid=4&hid=117&sid=1655235d-07e0-4812-b350-ef72da36c1f4%40sessionmgr106>.
This article talks about the communication and language deficits that deaf-blind children often have, and that these students need to be trained in communication. One major factor in the success of effective communication is that both the deaf-blind student and the person he or she is communication with both need to be using the same mode of communication. Furthermore, this article describes the types of communication partners, the different communication systems (gestures, movement cues, touch cues, sign language, etc.), and ways to expand these communication systems for them to provide more effective interaction.
The article is a credible source since it comes for a credible journal and has been peer-reviewed. This will be very useful in my research because this article talks about many of the devices that deaf-blind children use to communicate. Also, this article will help support my essay on ways to improve communication techniques with deaf-blind persons.
American Foundation for the Blind. “Statistical Snapshots.” (2008) MedLine Plus. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < http://www. afb.org/section.asp?SectionID=15#num>.
Overall, this website offers some statistics regarding deaf-blind people such as the number of children who are deaf-blind, the racial statistics, employments stats, and so on.
Berg, Wendy, et al. “Issues in the Management of Infants and Young Children Who Are Deaf-Blind.” Infants and Young Children: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Special Care Practices 19.4 (2006): 323-337. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008.
In this article, the authors talk about the unique educational, emotional, and developmental needs of a child who is deaf-blind. This article stresses how important family is in helping a deaf-blind child although it can be extremely stressful and hard to deal with. The article describes how important it is for deaf-blind children to develop strong communication skills, social skills, and behavioral skills. Also, the authors feel that the emphasis in deaf-blind students’ education should be on communication. The article goes on to talk about the special needs of deaf-blind students and how parents and families make such a large impact on their deaf-blind son/daughter/brother/sister. Also, this article talks about the circadian rhythm dysfunction that deaf-blind children have along with ways to manage the behavior of a deaf-blind child. Lastly, the article talks about how to educate these infants and young children with deaf-blindness and different types of interventions that have been used such as cochlear implants and amplification.
Bourquin, Eugene, and Dona Sauerburger. “Teaching Deaf-Blind People to Communicate and Interact with the Public.” Re:View 37.3 (2006): 109-116. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008.
In this article, the authors discuss some of the different strategies and the methodology in teaching deaf-blind people how to communicate and interact with the public. In particular this article discusses how deaf-blind people interact while traveling and some of the struggles they face. The authors feel that deaf-blind travelers face many challenges when traveling and that more accommodations need to be made to address these issues. Some ways that communication can occur effectively include basic considerations such as using gestures to communicate and using alphabet cards. Also, when communicating with a deaf-blind person the interaction should be simple and focused. In order to communicate with the public effectively, deaf-blind people often carry cards with them that say things like will you help me cross the street-if so, tap me on my shoulder once, etc. Overall, this article talks about some of the ways that deaf-blind people communicate with the public and how the public should respond to deaf-blind people.
Bruce, Susan M., et al. “Gestures Expressed by Children Who Are Congenially Deaf-Blind: Topography, Rate, and Function.” The Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 101.10 (2007): 637-652. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008.
This article describes a study done which paid close attention to the topography, rate, and function of gestures that seven deaf-blind students showed. These gestures were measured and observed to tell more about how deaf-blind students communicate. The article goes into great detail on different types of gestures, how gestures are developed, classified, and what functions these gestures serve. Students who participated in this study were vide-taped for six hour periods across multiple settings. The article goes on to talk about the specific gestures that each student displayed and how frequent they occurred. After analyzing their data, the researches came up with some implications for research and practice.
Carmen, Richard, and Joel Hurvitz. Special Devices for Hard of Hearing, Deaf, and Deaf-Blind Persons. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1981.
This book shows special devices that are used by people who are deaf-blind to help them learn and to live a normal day to day life. Some of the devices include communicating systems, mowat sensor, and a machine to help read. The book shows a picture of each device, a general price range, the purpose, and a description for each piece of equipment. Overall, this source has a lot of specific devices that help deaf-blind people live a normal day.
This book may be helpful in the background section of my paper. However, this book is older, so it does not contain the new technological advances that have been developed to help deaf-blind people communicate. The source is a credible source. Perhaps, I can tie this source into the section of the paper on devices used because I’m sure some of them are still used today in some form or another.
Collins, M.T. “History of Deaf-Blind Education.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 89.3 (1995): 210-13. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008. < http://web.ebscohost.com/ehos t/detail?vid=4 &hid=15& sid=8e6bff0b-d198-44d6-8c36-ddcd654ebd83%40sessionmgr2>.
This article uses a timeline to show the history of deaf-blind education. The article goes on to talk about the different strategies used to educate deaf-blind people at different times throughout history. This article discusses some of the schools that have been set up for deaf-blind children throughout history. Also, it talks about some of the major laws that have been passed relating to deaf-blindness.
This source came from the Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness which makes it a credible source for this essay. This particular article will be useful in explaining some of the background information and previous methods of communication. Specifically, this article will be helpful in the introduction part of my paper to give readers an idea of the history of deaf-blindness.
Davidson, Roseanna, Amy R. McKenzie. “The Emergent Literacy of Preschool Students Who Are Deaf-Blind: A Case Study.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 101.11 (2007): 720-25. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008.
This journal article is a case study describes the role of the environment, teaching strategies and activities, as well as teachers who work with deaf-blind students at the preschool level. Two teaching strategies that this article talks about are called scribbling and calendar system. For the most part, this study involved participants (preschoolers) and the setting (school for the deaf-blind). Data was collected through observations, interviews, and document reviews. Then, the data was analyzed and conclusions were drawn. Studies, such as these can play a large part in determining what types of strategies work and do not work for students who are deaf-blind
Engleman, Melissa D., and Harold C. Griffin. “Deaf-Blindness and Communication: Practical Knowledge and Strategies.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 92.11 (1998): 783-99. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008.
This article discusses different strategies and interventions that are being used to help children who are deaf blind learn to communicate. It also discusses different cues, such as touch and object cues, to help prompt children to do a simple, everyday task such as to stand up or sit down. Furthermore, it discusses different gestures, signals, tactile sign language, technological devices, tadoma, coactive movement, and many other strategies to teach children to communicate effectively.
This article will be especially useful in the section of my paper that talks about specific ways and strategies that deaf-blind children are learning to communicate effectively with others. This source is a credible, peer-reviewed journal which makes it a good source for my paper. Overall, this source will help support my thesis.
Gleason, Deborah. “Early Interactions With Children Who Are Deaf-Blind. The National Clearinghouse on Children Who Are Deaf-Blind (2002). Medline Plus. U. Of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008.
This article discusses some basic ways that children communicate early on in his/her life. The article offers some tips on how to help develop communication with a deaf-blind child, what types of communication may be occurring, how to watch for cues, and how to make the child feel involved in activities and play. Furthermore, the article addresses the issue of how important the setting of the environment around the child is in developing communication. The article talks about ways to adapt the child to the environment, monitor levels of stimulation, expose the child to language, and establish routines.
Goetz, Lori, and Nora O’Farrell. “Connections: Facilitation Social Supports for Students with Deaf-Blindness in General-Education Classrooms.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 93.11 (1999): 704-716. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < http://web.ebscohost.com/ehos t/detail?v id=24&hid=105&sid=1655235d-07e0-4812-b350-ef72da36c1f4%40sessionmgr106>.
This article discusses how more and more deaf-blind students are being educated in the general education classroom. However, deaf-blind students need more assistance due to their level of motor functioning, lack of communication, and mobility issues which make it difficult to deliver effective services in the general education classroom. On the other hand, studies find that it is more beneficial to the students to be in the classroom interacting with peers. The last part of this article stresses the importance of using a social support package which has three main elements.
Ingraham, Cynthia L., et al. “Sex Education for Deaf-Blind Youth and Adults.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 94.12 (2000): 756-762. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < http://we b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=24&hid=17&sid=1655235d-07e0-4812-b350-ef72da36c1f4%40sessionmgr106>.
This article discusses some of the different ways that the Helen Keller National Center for Deaf-Blind youths and adults has developed a program to teach deaf-blind people about sex. Furthermore, this program explains STD’s, birth control methods, and other information that deaf-blind people would not otherwise know. Also, this article talks about how the HKNC teaches deaf-blind people about everyday tasks regarding hygiene and health.
This article will work nicely in the section of my paper regarding strategies used for teaching, particularly the tactile method. Also, this article is from a credible, scholarly source. Overall, this article proves that deaf-blind people live normal lives and can still go on to reproduce and have successful, fulfilling lives.
Knoors, Harry, et al. “Interaction Between the Teacher and the Congenitally Deaf-Blind Child.” American Annals of the Deaf 151.3 (2006): 336-344. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD 6 April 2008.
This particular article discusses a study that was done with a 3 year old deaf-blind child and the interactions that took place between the teacher and the child. It was a typical case study that went on to explain in detail the participant, the setting, the methods used, and so forth. The end results of the study found that only a small portion of the time when the student and teacher were together was focused on communication and interaction. The researchers plan on doing more extensive research regarding interactions between deaf-blind students and teachers to make more generalizations on this topic.
Lieberman, Lauren J., and Janet M. MacVicar. “Play and Recreational Habits of Youths Who Are Deaf-Blind.” Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness 97.12 (2003): 755-768. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=3 &hid=117 &sid=1655235d-07e0-4812-b350-ef72da36c1f4%40sessionmgr106>.
This article talks about a study done with 54 deaf-blind children and looked at the amount and types of recreational activities they participate in. The study also looked at the barriers that deaf-blind children face which leads them to not participating in recreational activities. Furthermore, this article talks about some of the disadvantages that deaf-blind children face by not being able to do recreational activities. One major disadvantage is not getting enough physical exercise which affects the health of deaf-blind people. The article goes on to say that one of the reasons that deaf-blind children are not getting an adequate amount of exercise is simply the teacher not knowing how to include deaf-blind children into physical education classes at school. Play is also an important part of a deaf-blind child’s life. Since deaf-blind children are not always able to communicate effectively and have a lot of free time, play is a critical time for these children. Overall, this article offers a lot of insight into a deaf-blind child’s typical daily activities and some of the struggles they face everyday.
This source is from an academic, peer-reviewed journal; therefore, it is a credible source. This source provides a lot of valuable information regarding a deaf-blind child’s typical routine and the importance of play and recreation in their lives. This article may help in understanding the significant delays that deaf-blind children face and how they overcome these obstacles. This article will fit into the paper when talking about how deaf-blind children face obstacles and struggles most everyday but how they overcomes these obstacles.
Miles, Barbara. “Overview on Deaf-Blindness.” The National Information Clearinghouse on Children Who Are Deaf-Blind (2005). Medline Plus. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008. < http://www.dbli nk.org/lib/overview.htm>.
This particular article provides a general overview of deaf-blindness. Some of the information in this article includes the causes, anomalies, and general idea of what exactly deaf-blindness is. The article goes on to talk about the challenges that deaf-blind people face along with the challenges that the family, teachers, and caregivers face with communication, education, mobility, and the transition to adulthood. Some of the different strategies this article mentions to help communicate with deaf-blind people are Braille, finger spelling, object and picture symbols, lip-reading speech, Pidgin signed English, gestures, and cues.
Research Question: There are a number of deaf-blind people in this world. One such person was Helen Keller, who graduated from college despite her setback. So how in the absence of visual and aural stimulation, are deaf-blind children taught to communicate to live a normal but yet fulfilling life? What are some strategies and devices used to teach a child how to communicate and how can these strategies and devices be improved? Where are students who are deaf-blind educated and what services are they provided with? What are some of the struggles both developmentally, emotionally, physically that affect deaf-blind children?
Alberto, P.A., and Wolff K. Heller. “Interactions of Communication Partners and Students Who are Deaf-Blind: A Model.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 89.5 (1995): 391. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < http://web.ebscohost.co m/ehost/detail?vid=4&hid=117&sid=1655235d-07e0-4812-b350-ef72da36c1f4%40sessionmgr106>.
This article talks about the communication and language deficits that deaf-blind children often have, and that these students need to be trained in communication. One major factor in the success of effective communication is that both the deaf-blind student and the person he or she is communication with both need to be using the same mode of communication. Furthermore, this article describes the types of communication partners, the different communication systems (gestures, movement cues, touch cues, sign language, etc.), and ways to expand these communication systems for them to provide more effective interaction.
The article is a credible source since it comes for a credible journal and has been peer-reviewed. This will be very useful in my research because this article talks about many of the devices that deaf-blind children use to communicate. Also, this article will help support my essay on ways to improve communication techniques with deaf-blind persons.
American Foundation for the Blind. “Statistical Snapshots.” (2008) MedLine Plus. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < http://www. afb.org/section.asp?SectionID=15#num>.
Overall, this website offers some statistics regarding deaf-blind people such as the number of children who are deaf-blind, the racial statistics, employments stats, and so on.
Berg, Wendy, et al. “Issues in the Management of Infants and Young Children Who Are Deaf-Blind.” Infants and Young Children: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Special Care Practices 19.4 (2006): 323-337. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008
In this article, the authors talk about the unique educational, emotional, and developmental needs of a child who is deaf-blind. This article stresses how important family is in helping a deaf-blind child although it can be extremely stressful and hard to deal with. The article describes how important it is for deaf-blind children to develop strong communication skills, social skills, and behavioral skills. Also, the authors feel that the emphasis in deaf-blind students’ education should be on communication. The article goes on to talk about the special needs of deaf-blind students and how parents and families make such a large impact on their deaf-blind son/daughter/brother/sister. Also, this article talks about the circadian rhythm dysfunction that deaf-blind children have along with ways to manage the behavior of a deaf-blind child. Lastly, the article talks about how to educate these infants and young children with deaf-blindness and different types of interventions that have been used such as cochlear implants and amplification.
Bourquin, Eugene, and Dona Sauerburger. “Teaching Deaf-Blind People to Communicate and Interact with the Public.” Re:View 37.3 (2006): 109-116. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008
In this article, the authors discuss some of the different strategies and the methodology in teaching deaf-blind people how to communicate and interact with the public. In particular this article discusses how deaf-blind people interact while traveling and some of the struggles they face. The authors feel that deaf-blind travelers face many challenges when traveling and that more accommodations need to be made to address these issues. Some ways that communication can occur effectively include basic considerations such as using gestures to communicate and using alphabet cards. Also, when communicating with a deaf-blind person the interaction should be simple and focused. In order to communicate with the public effectively, deaf-blind people often carry cards with them that say things like will you help me cross the street-if so, tap me on my shoulder once, etc. Overall, this article talks about some of the ways that deaf-blind people communicate with the public and how the public should respond to deaf-blind people.
Bruce, Susan M., et al. “Gestures Expressed by Children Who Are Congenially Deaf-Blind: Topography, Rate, and Function.” The Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 101.10 (2007): 637-652. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008
This article describes a study done which paid close attention to the topography, rate, and function of gestures that seven deaf-blind students showed. These gestures were measured and observed to tell more about how deaf-blind students communicate. The article goes into great detail on different types of gestures, how gestures are developed, classified, and what functions these gestures serve. Students who participated in this study were vide-taped for six hour periods across multiple settings. The article goes on to talk about the specific gestures that each student displayed and how frequent they occurred. After analyzing their data, the researches came up with some implications for research and practice.
Carmen, Richard, and Joel Hurvitz. Special Devices for Hard of Hearing, Deaf, and Deaf-Blind Persons. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1981.
This book shows special devices that are used by people who are deaf-blind to help them learn and to live a normal day to day life. Some of the devices include communicating systems, mowat sensor, and a machine to help read. The book shows a picture of each device, a general price range, the purpose, and a description for each piece of equipment. Overall, this source has a lot of specific devices that help deaf-blind people live a normal day.
This book may be helpful in the background section of my paper. However, this book is older, so it does not contain the new technological advances that have been developed to help deaf-blind people communicate. The source is a credible source. Perhaps, I can tie this source into the section of the paper on devices used because I’m sure some of them are still used today in some form or another.
Collins, M.T. “History of Deaf-Blind Education.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 89.3 (1995): 210-13. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008. < http://web.ebscohost.com/ehos t/detail?vid=4 &hid=15& sid=8e6bff0b-d198-44d6-8c36-ddcd654ebd83%40sessionmgr2>.
This article uses a timeline to show the history of deaf-blind education. The article goes on to talk about the different strategies used to educate deaf-blind people at different times throughout history. This article discusses some of the schools that have been set up for deaf-blind children throughout history. Also, it talks about some of the major laws that have been passed relating to deaf-blindness.
This source came from the Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness which makes it a credible source for this essay. This particular article will be useful in explaining some of the background information and previous methods of communication. Specifically, this article will be helpful in the introduction part of my paper to give readers an idea of the history of deaf-blindness.
Davidson, Roseanna, Amy R. McKenzie. “The Emergent Literacy of Preschool Students Who Are Deaf-Blind: A Case Study.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 101.11 (2007): 720-25. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008
This journal article is a case study describes the role of the environment, teaching strategies and activities, as well as teachers who work with deaf-blind students at the preschool level. Two teaching strategies that this article talks about are called scribbling and calendar system. For the most part, this study involved participants (preschoolers) and the setting (school for the deaf-blind). Data was collected through observations, interviews, and document reviews. Then, the data was analyzed and conclusions were drawn. Studies, such as these can play a large part in determining what types of strategies work and do not work for students who are deaf-blind
Engleman, Melissa D., and Harold C. Griffin. “Deaf-Blindness and Communication: Practical Knowledge and Strategies.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 92.11 (1998): 783-99. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008
This article discusses different strategies and interventions that are being used to help children who are deaf blind learn to communicate. It also discusses different cues, such as touch and object cues, to help prompt children to do a simple, everyday task such as to stand up or sit down. Furthermore, it discusses different gestures, signals, tactile sign language, technological devices, tadoma, coactive movement, and many other strategies to teach children to communicate effectively.
This article will be especially useful in the section of my paper that talks about specific ways and strategies that deaf-blind children are learning to communicate effectively with others. This source is a credible, peer-reviewed journal which makes it a good source for my paper. Overall, this source will help support my thesis.
Gleason, Deborah. “Early Interactions With Children Who Are Deaf-Blind. The National Clearinghouse on Children Who Are Deaf-Blind (2002). Medline Plus. U. Of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008
This article discusses some basic ways that children communicate early on in his/her life. The article offers some tips on how to help develop communication with a deaf-blind child, what types of communication may be occurring, how to watch for cues, and how to make the child feel involved in activities and play. Furthermore, the article addresses the issue of how important the setting of the environment around the child is in developing communication. The article talks about ways to adapt the child to the environment, monitor levels of stimulation, expose the child to language, and establish routines.
Goetz, Lori, and Nora O’Farrell. “Connections: Facilitation Social Supports for Students with Deaf-Blindness in General-Education Classrooms.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 93.11 (1999): 704-716. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < http://web.ebscohost.com/ehos t/detail?v id=24&hid=105&sid=1655235d-07e0-4812-b350-ef72da36c1f4%40sessionmgr106>.
This article discusses how more and more deaf-blind students are being educated in the general education classroom. However, deaf-blind students need more assistance due to their level of motor functioning, lack of communication, and mobility issues which make it difficult to deliver effective services in the general education classroom. On the other hand, studies find that it is more beneficial to the students to be in the classroom interacting with peers. The last part of this article stresses the importance of using a social support package which has three main elements.
Ingraham, Cynthia L., et al. “Sex Education for Deaf-Blind Youth and Adults.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 94.12 (2000): 756-762. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < http://we b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=24&hid=17&sid=1655235d-07e0-4812-b350-ef72da36c1f4%40sessionmgr106>.
This article discusses some of the different ways that the Helen Keller National Center for Deaf-Blind youths and adults has developed a program to teach deaf-blind people about sex. Furthermore, this program explains STD’s, birth control methods, and other information that deaf-blind people would not otherwise know. Also, this article talks about how the HKNC teaches deaf-blind people about everyday tasks regarding hygiene and health.
This article will work nicely in the section of my paper regarding strategies used for teaching, particularly the tactile method. Also, this article is from a credible, scholarly source. Overall, this article proves that deaf-blind people live normal lives and can still go on to reproduce and have successful, fulfilling lives.
Knoors, Harry, et al. “Interaction Between the Teacher and the Congenitally Deaf-Blind Child.” American Annals of the Deaf 151.3 (2006): 336-344. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD 6 April 2008
This particular article discusses a study that was done with a 3 year old deaf-blind child and the interactions that took place between the teacher and the child. It was a typical case study that went on to explain in detail the participant, the setting, the methods used, and so forth. The end results of the study found that only a small portion of the time when the student and teacher were together was focused on communication and interaction. The researchers plan on doing more extensive research regarding interactions between deaf-blind students and teachers to make more generalizations on this topic.
Lieberman, Lauren J., and Janet M. MacVicar. “Play and Recreational Habits of Youths Who Are Deaf-Blind.” Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness 97.12 (2003): 755-768. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 9 April 2008 < http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=3 &hid=117 &sid=1655235d-07e0-4812-b350-ef72da36c1f4%40sessionmgr106>.
This article talks about a study done with 54 deaf-blind children and looked at the amount and types of recreational activities they participate in. The study also looked at the barriers that deaf-blind children face which leads them to not participating in recreational activities. Furthermore, this article talks about some of the disadvantages that deaf-blind children face by not being able to do recreational activities. One major disadvantage is not getting enough physical exercise which affects the health of deaf-blind people. The article goes on to say that one of the reasons that deaf-blind children are not getting an adequate amount of exercise is simply the teacher not knowing how to include deaf-blind children into physical education classes at school. Play is also an important part of a deaf-blind child’s life. Since deaf-blind children are not always able to communicate effectively and have a lot of free time, play is a critical time for these children. Overall, this article offers a lot of insight into a deaf-blind child’s typical daily activities and some of the struggles they face everyday.
This source is from an academic, peer-reviewed journal; therefore, it is a credible source. This source provides a lot of valuable information regarding a deaf-blind child’s typical routine and the importance of play and recreation in their lives. This article may help in understanding the significant delays that deaf-blind children face and how they overcome these obstacles. This article will fit into the paper when talking about how deaf-blind children face obstacles and struggles most everyday but how they overcomes these obstacles.
Miles, Barbara. “Overview on Deaf-Blindness.” The National Information Clearinghouse on Children Who Are Deaf-Blind (2005). Medline Plus. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008. < http://www.dbli nk.org/lib/overview.htm>.
This particular article provides a general overview of deaf-blindness. Some of the information in this article includes the causes, anomalies, and general idea of what exactly deaf-blindness is. The article goes on to talk about the challenges that deaf-blind people face along with the challenges that the family, teachers, and caregivers face with communication, education, mobility, and the transition to adulthood. Some of the different strategies this article mentions to help communicate with deaf-blind people are Braille, finger spelling, object and picture symbols, lip-reading speech, Pidgin signed English, gestures, and cues.
2nd draft of annotated bibliography
Annotated Bibliography
Research Question: In the absence of visual and aural stimulation, what are some strategies used to teach a child how to communicate so as he or she is able to live a fulfilled life?
Berg, Wendy, et al. “Issues in the Management of Infants and Young Children Who Are Deaf-Blind.” Infants and Young Children: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Special Care Practices 19.4 (2006): 323-337. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008.
In this article, the authors talk about the unique educational, emotional, and developmental needs of a child who is deaf-blind. This article stresses how important family is in helping a deaf-blind child although it can be extremely stressful and hard to deal with. The article describes how important it is for deaf-blind children to develop strong communication skills, social skills, and behavioral skills. Also, the authors feel that the emphasis in deaf-blind students’ education should be on communication. The article goes on to talk about the special needs of deaf-blind students and how parents and families make such a large impact on their deaf-blind son/daughter/brother/sister. Also, this article talks about the circadian rhythm dysfunction that deaf-blind children have along with ways to manage the behavior of a deaf-blind child. Lastly, the article talks about how to educate these infants and young children with deaf-blindness and different types of interventions that have been used such as cochlear implants and amplification.
Bourquin, Eugene, and Dona Sauerburger. “Teaching Deaf-Blind People to Communicate and Interact with the Public.” Re:View 37.3 (2006): 109-116. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008.
In this article, the authors discuss some of the different strategies and the methodology in teaching deaf-blind people how to communicate and interact with the public. In particular this article discusses how deaf-blind people interact while traveling and some of the struggles they face. The authors feel that deaf-blind travelers face many challenges when traveling and that more accommodations need to be made to address these issues. Some ways that communication can occur effectively include basic considerations such as using gestures to communicate and using alphabet cards. Also, when communicating with a deaf-blind person the interaction should be simple and focused. In order to communicate with the public effectively, deaf-blind people often carry cards with them that say things like will you help me cross the street-if so, tap me on my shoulder once, etc. Overall, this article talks about some of the ways that deaf-blind people communicate with the public and how the public should respond to deaf-blind people.
Bruce, Susan M., et al. “Gestures Expressed by Children Who Are Congenially Deaf-Blind: Topography, Rate, and Function.” The Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 101.10 (2007): 637-652. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008.
This article describes a study done which paid close attention to the topography, rate, and function of gestures that seven deaf-blind students showed. These gestures were measured and observed to tell more about how deaf-blind students communicate. The article goes into great detail on different types of gestures, how gestures are developed, classified, and what functions these gestures serve. Students who participated in this study were vide-taped for six hour periods across multiple settings. The article goes on to talk about the specific gestures that each student displayed and how frequent they occurred. After analyzing their data, the researches came up with some implications for research and practice.
Carmen, Richard, and Joel Hurvitz. Special Devices for Hard of Hearing, Deaf, and Deaf-Blind Persons. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1981.
This book shows special devices that are used by people who are deaf-blind to help them learn and to live a normal day to day life. Some of the devices include communicating systems, mowat sensor, and a machine to help read. The book shows a picture of each device, a general price range, the purpose, and a description for each piece of equipment. Overall, this source has a lot of specific devices that help deaf-blind people live a normal day.
Collins, M.T. “History of Deaf-Blind Education.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 89.3 (1995): 210-13. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008. < http://web.ebscohost.com/ehos t/detail?vid=4 &hid=15& sid=8e6bff0b-d198-44d6-8c36-ddcd654ebd83%40sessionmgr2>.
This article uses a timeline to show the history of deaf-blind education. The article goes on to talk about the different strategies used to educate deaf-blind people at different times throughout history. This article discusses some of the schools that have been set up for deaf-blind children throughout history. Also, it talks about some of the major laws that have been passed relating to deaf-blindness.
Davidson, Roseanna, Amy R. McKenzie. “The Emergent Literacy of Preschool Students Who Are Deaf-Blind: A Case Study.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 101.11 (2007): 720-25. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008.
This journal article is a case study describes the role of the environment, teaching strategies and activities, as well as teachers who work with deaf-blind students at the preschool level. Two teaching strategies that this article talks about are called scribbling and calendar system. For the most part, this study involved participants (preschoolers) and the setting (school for the deaf-blind). Data was collected through observations, interviews, and document reviews. Then, the data was analyzed and conclusions were drawn. Studies, such as these can play a large part in determining what types of strategies work and do not work for students who are deaf-blind
Engleman, Melissa D., and Harold C. Griffin. “Deaf-Blindness and Communication: Practical Knowledge and Strategies.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 92.11 (1998): 783-99. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008.
This article discusses different strategies and interventions that are being used to help children who are deaf blind learn to communicate. It also discusses different cues, such as touch and object cues, to help prompt children to do a simple, everyday task such as to stand up or sit down. Furthermore, it discusses different gestures, signals, tactile sign language, technological devices, tadoma, coactive movement, and many other strategies to teach children to communicate effectively.
Gleason, Deborah. “Early Interactions With Children Who Are Deaf-Blind. The National Clearinghouse on Children Who Are Deaf-Blind (2002). Medline Plus. U. Of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008.
This article discusses some basic ways that children communicate early on in his/her life. The article offers some tips on how to help develop communication with a deaf-blind child, what types of communication may be occurring, how to watch for cues, and how to make the child feel involved in activities and play. Furthermore, the article addresses the issue of how important the setting of the environment around the child is in developing communication. The article talks about ways to adapt the child to the environment, monitor levels of stimulation, expose the child to language, and establish routines.
Knoors, Harry, et al. “Interaction Between the Teacher and the Congenitally Deaf-Blind Child.” American Annals of the Deaf 151.3 (2006): 336-344. Academic Search Premier. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD 6 April 2008.
This particular article discusses a study that was done with a 3 year old deaf-blind child and the interactions that took place between the teacher and the child. It was a typical case study that went on to explain in detail the participant, the setting, the methods used, and so forth. The end results of the study found that only a small portion of the time when the student and teacher were together was focused on communication and interaction. The researchers plan on doing more extensive research regarding interactions between deaf-blind students and teachers to make more generalizations on this topic.
Miles, Barbara. “Overview on Deaf-Blindness.” The National Information Clearinghouse on Children Who Are Deaf-Blind (2005). Medline Plus. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008. < http://www.dbli nk.org/lib/overview.htm>.
This particular article provides a general overview of deaf-blindness. Some of the information in this article includes the causes, anomalies, and general idea of what exactly deaf-blindness is. The article goes on to talk about the challenges that deaf-blind people face along with the challenges that the family, teachers, and caregivers face with communication, education, mobility, and the transition to adulthood. Some of the different strategies this article mentions to help communicate with deaf-blind people are Braille, finger spelling, object and picture symbols, lip-reading speech, Pidgin signed English, gestures, and cues.
Research Question: In the absence of visual and aural stimulation, what are some strategies used to teach a child how to communicate so as he or she is able to live a fulfilled life?
Berg, Wendy, et al. “Issues in the Management of Infants and Young Children Who Are Deaf-Blind.” Infants and Young Children: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Special Care Practices 19.4 (2006): 323-337. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008
In this article, the authors talk about the unique educational, emotional, and developmental needs of a child who is deaf-blind. This article stresses how important family is in helping a deaf-blind child although it can be extremely stressful and hard to deal with. The article describes how important it is for deaf-blind children to develop strong communication skills, social skills, and behavioral skills. Also, the authors feel that the emphasis in deaf-blind students’ education should be on communication. The article goes on to talk about the special needs of deaf-blind students and how parents and families make such a large impact on their deaf-blind son/daughter/brother/sister. Also, this article talks about the circadian rhythm dysfunction that deaf-blind children have along with ways to manage the behavior of a deaf-blind child. Lastly, the article talks about how to educate these infants and young children with deaf-blindness and different types of interventions that have been used such as cochlear implants and amplification.
Bourquin, Eugene, and Dona Sauerburger. “Teaching Deaf-Blind People to Communicate and Interact with the Public.” Re:View 37.3 (2006): 109-116. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008
In this article, the authors discuss some of the different strategies and the methodology in teaching deaf-blind people how to communicate and interact with the public. In particular this article discusses how deaf-blind people interact while traveling and some of the struggles they face. The authors feel that deaf-blind travelers face many challenges when traveling and that more accommodations need to be made to address these issues. Some ways that communication can occur effectively include basic considerations such as using gestures to communicate and using alphabet cards. Also, when communicating with a deaf-blind person the interaction should be simple and focused. In order to communicate with the public effectively, deaf-blind people often carry cards with them that say things like will you help me cross the street-if so, tap me on my shoulder once, etc. Overall, this article talks about some of the ways that deaf-blind people communicate with the public and how the public should respond to deaf-blind people.
Bruce, Susan M., et al. “Gestures Expressed by Children Who Are Congenially Deaf-Blind: Topography, Rate, and Function.” The Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 101.10 (2007): 637-652. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008
This article describes a study done which paid close attention to the topography, rate, and function of gestures that seven deaf-blind students showed. These gestures were measured and observed to tell more about how deaf-blind students communicate. The article goes into great detail on different types of gestures, how gestures are developed, classified, and what functions these gestures serve. Students who participated in this study were vide-taped for six hour periods across multiple settings. The article goes on to talk about the specific gestures that each student displayed and how frequent they occurred. After analyzing their data, the researches came up with some implications for research and practice.
Carmen, Richard, and Joel Hurvitz. Special Devices for Hard of Hearing, Deaf, and Deaf-Blind Persons. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1981.
This book shows special devices that are used by people who are deaf-blind to help them learn and to live a normal day to day life. Some of the devices include communicating systems, mowat sensor, and a machine to help read. The book shows a picture of each device, a general price range, the purpose, and a description for each piece of equipment. Overall, this source has a lot of specific devices that help deaf-blind people live a normal day.
Collins, M.T. “History of Deaf-Blind Education.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 89.3 (1995): 210-13. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008. < http://web.ebscohost.com/ehos t/detail?vid=4 &hid=15& sid=8e6bff0b-d198-44d6-8c36-ddcd654ebd83%40sessionmgr2>.
This article uses a timeline to show the history of deaf-blind education. The article goes on to talk about the different strategies used to educate deaf-blind people at different times throughout history. This article discusses some of the schools that have been set up for deaf-blind children throughout history. Also, it talks about some of the major laws that have been passed relating to deaf-blindness.
Davidson, Roseanna, Amy R. McKenzie. “The Emergent Literacy of Preschool Students Who Are Deaf-Blind: A Case Study.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 101.11 (2007): 720-25. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 6 April 2008
This journal article is a case study describes the role of the environment, teaching strategies and activities, as well as teachers who work with deaf-blind students at the preschool level. Two teaching strategies that this article talks about are called scribbling and calendar system. For the most part, this study involved participants (preschoolers) and the setting (school for the deaf-blind). Data was collected through observations, interviews, and document reviews. Then, the data was analyzed and conclusions were drawn. Studies, such as these can play a large part in determining what types of strategies work and do not work for students who are deaf-blind
Engleman, Melissa D., and Harold C. Griffin. “Deaf-Blindness and Communication: Practical Knowledge and Strategies.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 92.11 (1998): 783-99. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008
This article discusses different strategies and interventions that are being used to help children who are deaf blind learn to communicate. It also discusses different cues, such as touch and object cues, to help prompt children to do a simple, everyday task such as to stand up or sit down. Furthermore, it discusses different gestures, signals, tactile sign language, technological devices, tadoma, coactive movement, and many other strategies to teach children to communicate effectively.
Gleason, Deborah. “Early Interactions With Children Who Are Deaf-Blind. The National Clearinghouse on Children Who Are Deaf-Blind (2002). Medline Plus. U. Of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008
This article discusses some basic ways that children communicate early on in his/her life. The article offers some tips on how to help develop communication with a deaf-blind child, what types of communication may be occurring, how to watch for cues, and how to make the child feel involved in activities and play. Furthermore, the article addresses the issue of how important the setting of the environment around the child is in developing communication. The article talks about ways to adapt the child to the environment, monitor levels of stimulation, expose the child to language, and establish routines.
Knoors, Harry, et al. “Interaction Between the Teacher and the Congenitally Deaf-Blind Child.” American Annals of the Deaf 151.3 (2006): 336-344. Academic Search Premier. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD 6 April 2008
This particular article discusses a study that was done with a 3 year old deaf-blind child and the interactions that took place between the teacher and the child. It was a typical case study that went on to explain in detail the participant, the setting, the methods used, and so forth. The end results of the study found that only a small portion of the time when the student and teacher were together was focused on communication and interaction. The researchers plan on doing more extensive research regarding interactions between deaf-blind students and teachers to make more generalizations on this topic.
Miles, Barbara. “Overview on Deaf-Blindness.” The National Information Clearinghouse on Children Who Are Deaf-Blind (2005). Medline Plus. U. of South Dakota, I.D. Weeks Lib., Vermillion, SD. 1 April 2008. < http://www.dbli nk.org/lib/overview.htm>.
This particular article provides a general overview of deaf-blindness. Some of the information in this article includes the causes, anomalies, and general idea of what exactly deaf-blindness is. The article goes on to talk about the challenges that deaf-blind people face along with the challenges that the family, teachers, and caregivers face with communication, education, mobility, and the transition to adulthood. Some of the different strategies this article mentions to help communicate with deaf-blind people are Braille, finger spelling, object and picture symbols, lip-reading speech, Pidgin signed English, gestures, and cues.
Questions
I just wanted to let you know that I read your new post up on our course blog. I found the information to be helpful because I found myself wondering quite a few of the same things as other classmates. See you in class on Monday and hope you had a good weekend!
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